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Nutrition
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Carbohydrates: | compounds composed of single or multiple sugars. The name infers “carbon and water.” A chemical shorthand for carbohydrate is CHO, signifying carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). |
| Complex carbohydrates: | long chains of sugar units arranged to form starch or fiber; also called polysaccharides |
| Simple carbohydrates: | sugars, including both single sugar units and linked pairs of sugar units. The basic sugar unit is a molecule containing six carbon atoms, together with oxygen and hydrogen atoms. |
| Photosynthesis: | the process by which green plants make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using the green pigment chlorophyll to capture the sun’s energy (photo means “light”; synthesis means “making”). |
| Chlorophyll: | the green pigment of plants that captures energy from sunlight for use in photosynthesis. |
| Sugars: | simple carbohydrates; that is, molecules of either single sugar units or pairs of those sugar units bonded together. By common usage, sugar most often refers to sucrose. |
| Glucose: | a single sugar used in both plant and animal tissues for energy; sometimes known as blood sugar or dextrose. Also defined in Chapter 3. |
| Monosaccharides: | single sugar units (mono means “one”; saccharide means “sugar unit”). |
| Disaccharides: | pairs of single sugars linked together (di means “two”). |
| Fructose: | (FROOK-tose) a monosaccharide; sometimes known as fruit sugar (fruct means “fruit”; ose means “sugar”). |
| Galactose: | (ga-LACK-tose) a monosaccharide; part of the disaccharide lactose (milk sugar). |
| Added sugars: | high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, and other sweet carbohydrates. Also defined in Chapter 2. |
| Lactose: | a disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; sometimes known as milk sugar (lact means “milk”; ose means “sugar”). |
| Maltose: | a disaccharide composed of two glucose units; sometimes known as malt sugar. |
| Sucrose: (SOO-crose) | a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; sometimes known as table, beet, or cane sugar and, often, as simply sugar. |
| Polysaccharides: | another term for complex carbohydrates; compounds composed of long strands of glucose units linked together (poly means “many”). |
| Starch: | a plant polysaccharide composed of glucose. After cooking, starch is highly digestible by human beings; raw starch often resists digestion. |
| Granules: | small grains. Starch granules are packages of starch molecules. Various plant species make starch granules of varying shapes. |
| Glycogen: (GLY-co-gen). | a highly branched polysaccharide that is made and held in liver and muscle tissues as a storage form of glucose. Glycogen is not a significant food source of carbohydrate and is not counted as one of the complex carbohydrates in foods |
| Fibers: | the indigestible parts of plant foods, largely nonstarch polysaccharides that are not digested by human digestive enzymes. Fibers include cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, mucilages, and a few nonpolysaccharides such as lignin. |
| Fermentation: (FUR-mun-TAY-shun) | the anaerobic (without oxygen) breakdown of carbohydrates by microorganisms that releases small organic compounds along with carbon dioxide and energy. |
| Whole grains: | grains or foods made from them that contain all the parts and naturally occurring nutrients of the entire grain seed, except the inedible husk. |
| Soluble fibers: . | food components that readily dissolve in water, become viscous, and often impart gummy or gel-like characteristics to foods. An example is pectin from fruit, which is used to thicken jellies |
| Viscous: (VISS-cuss) | having a sticky, gummy, or gel-like consistency that flows relatively slowly. |
| Insoluble fibers: | the tough, fibrous structures of fruit, vegetables, and grains; indigestible food components that do not dissolve in water. |
| Diabetes: (dye-uh-BEET-eez) | metabolic diseases that impair a person’s ability to regulate blood glucose. |
| Hemorrhoids: (HEM-or-oids) | swollen, hardened (varicose) veins in the rectum, usually caused by pressure resulting from constipation. |
| Appendicitis: | inflammation and/or infection of the appendix. (The appendix, a sac about 4 inches long protruding from the large intestine, may become infected if fragments of the intestinal contents become trapped within it.) |
| Diverticula: (dye-ver-TIC-you-la) | sacs or pouches that balloon out of the intestinal wall, caused by weakening of the muscle layers that encase the intestine. The painful inflammation of one or more of the diverticula is known as diverticulitis. |
| Chelating agents: (KEY-late-ing) | molecules that attract or bind with other molecules and are therefore useful in either preventing or promoting movement of substances from place to place. |
| Bran: | the protective, fibrous coating around a grain; the chief fiber constituent of a grain. |
| Brown bread: | bread containing ingredients such as molasses that lend a brown color; these breads may be made with any kind of flour, including white flour. |
| Endosperm | the bulk of the edible part of a grain; the starchy part. |
| Enriched, fortified: | refers to the addition of nutrients to a refined food product. As defined by U.S. law, these terms mean that specified levels of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, and iron have been added to refined grains and grain products. |
| Germ: | the nutrient-rich, inner part of a grain. |
| Husk: | the outer, inedible part of a grain. |
| Multigrain: | a term used on food labels to indicate a food made with more than one kind of grain. Not an indicator of a whole-grain food. |
| Refined: | : refers to the process by which the coarse parts of food products are removed. For example, the refining of wheat into white enriched flour involves removing three of the four parts of the kernel—the chaff, the bran, and the germ—leaving only the endospe |
| Refined grains: | grains and grain products from which the bran, germ, or other edible parts of whole grains have been removed; not a whole grain. Many refined grains are low in fiber and are enriched with vitamins, as required by U.S. regulations. |
| Stone-ground: | refers to a milling process using limestone to grind any grain, including refined grains, into flour. |
| Unbleached flour: | a beige-colored, refined endosperm flour with texture and nutritive qualities that approximate those of regular white flour. |
| Wheat bread: | bread made with any wheat flour, including refined enriched white flour. |
| Wheat flour: | any flour made from wheat, including refined white flour. |
| White flour: | an endosperm flour that has been refined and bleached for maximum softness and whiteness. |
| White wheat: | a wheat variety developed to be paler in color than common red wheat. White wheat is similar to red wheat in carbohydrate, protein, and other nutrients, but it lacks potentially beneficial, phytochemicals of red wheat. |
| 100% whole grain: | a label term for food in which the grain is entirely whole grain, with no added refined grains. |
| Whole-wheat flour: | flour made from intact wheat kernels; a whole-grain flour. Also called graham flour. |
| Resistant starch: | the fraction of starch in a food that is digested slowly, or not at all, by human enzymes. |
| Lactose intolerance: | impaired ability to digest lactose due to reduced amounts of the enzyme lactase. |
| Lactase: | the intestinal enzyme that splits the disaccharide lactose to monosaccharides during digestion. |
| Protein-sparing action: | the action of carbohydrate and fat in providing energy that allows protein to be used for purposes it alone can serve. |
| Ketone (kee-tone) bodies: | water-soluble compounds that arise during the breakdown of fat when carbohydrate is not available. Also known by the broader term ketones, although some of these compounds vary chemically. |
| Ketosis: (kee-TOE-sis): | an undesirably high concentration of ketone bodies, such as acetone, in the blood or urine. |
| Insulin | a hormone secreted by the pancreas in response to a high blood glucose concentration. It assists cells in drawing glucose from the blood. |
| Glucagon: (GLOO-cah-gon) | a hormone secreted by the pancreas that stimulates the liver to release glucose into the blood when blood glucose concentration dips. |
| Glycemic response: | a term used to describe how quickly glucose is absorbed from a meal, how high blood glucose rises, and how quickly it returns to normal. |
| Glycemic index (GI): | a ranking of foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose relative to a reference dose of glucose. |
| Hypoglycemia: (HIGH-poh-gly-SEE-mee-ah) | an abnormally low blood glucose concentration, often accompanied by symptoms such as anxiety, rapid heartbeat, and sweating. |
| Type 1 diabetes: | the type of diabetes in which the pancreas produces no or very little insulin; often diagnosed in childhood, although some cases arise in adulthood. |
| Type 2 diabetes: | the type of diabetes in which the pancreas makes plenty of insulin, but the body’s cells resist insulin’s action; often diagnosed in adulthood. |
| Added sugars: | sugars and syrups added to a food for any purpose, such as to add sweetness or bulk or to aid in browning (baked goods). Also called carbohydrate sweeteners, they include glucose, fructose, corn syrup, concentrated fruit juice |
| Agave syrup: | a carbohydrate-rich sweetener made from a Mexican plant; a high-fructose content gives some agave syrups a greater sweetening power per calorie than sucrose. |
| Brown sugar: | white sugar with molasses added, 95% pure sucrose. |
| Coconut sugar: | a granulated sugar composed of sucrose, glucose, and fructose; made by evaporating the sap of the flower buds of coconut palm trees. |
| Concentrated fruit juice sweetener: | a concentrated sugar syrup made from dehydrated, deflavored fruit juice, commonly grape juice; used to sweeten products that can then claim to be “all fruit.” |
| Confectioner’s sugar: | finely powdered sucrose, 99.9% pure. |
| Corn sweeteners: | corn syrup and sugar solutions derived from corn. |
| Corn syrup: | a syrup, mostly glucose, partly maltose, produced by the action of enzymes on cornstarch. Includes corn syrup solids. |
| Fructose, galactose, glucose: | the monosaccharides important in nutrition. |
| Granulated sugar: | common table sugar, crystalline sucrose, 99.9% pure. |
| High-fructose corn syrup: | a commercial sweetener used in many foods, including soft drinks. Composed almost entirely of the monosaccharides fructose and glucose, its sweetness and caloric value are similar to those of sucrose. |
| Honey: | a concentrated solution composed primarily of glucose and fructose, produced by enzymatic digestion of the sucrose in nectar by bees |
| Invert sugar: | a mixture of glucose and fructose formed by the splitting of sucrose in an industrial process. Sold only in liquid form and sweeter than sucrose, invert sugar forms during certain cooking procedures and works to prevent crystallization |
| Lactose, maltose, sucrose: | the disaccharides important in nutrition. |
| Maple syrup: | a concentrated solution of sucrose derived from the sap of the sugar maple tree. This sugar was once common but is now usually replaced by sucrose and artificial maple flavoring. |
| Molasses: | a thick, brown syrup left over from the refining of sucrose from sugar cane. The major micronutrient in molasses is iron, a contaminant from the machinery used in processing it. |
| Naturally occurring sugars: | sugars that are not added to a food but are present as its original constituents, such as the sugars of fruit or milk. |
| Nectars: | concentrated juice and pulp of peach, pear, or other fruits. |
| Raw sugar: | the first crop of crystals harvested during sugar processing. Raw sugar cannot be sold in the United States because it contains too much filth (dirt, insect fragments, and the like). |
| White sugar: | granulated sucrose, produced by dissolving, concentrating, and recrystallizing raw sugar. Also called table sugar. |
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