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physiology exam 2
physiology exam 2 hoekstra
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| primary endocrine disorder | dysfunction caused by the endocrine gland itself |
| Explain how a misregulated hormone might produce different symptoms depending on age | because of the growth plate |
| long-loop negatuve feedback | endocrine gland produces hormone that suppresses secretion of anterior pituitary and hypothalamic trophic hormones, most dominant feedback mechanism |
| short loop negative feedback | pituitary hormone suppresses hypothalamic trophic hormone production, secondary feedback mechanism |
| ultra short negative feedback | occurs in hypothalamus and pituitary, autocrine or paracrine signals to regulate secretion |
| secondary endocrine disorder | dysfunction caused by abnormal pituitary activity |
| teritary endocrine disorder | dysfunction caused by a hypothalamic origin |
| distinguish the central nervous system (CNS) | brain & spinal cord, collection of neurons=nuclei |
| peripheral nervous system | nerve fibers go to all parts of body, send signals to the different tissues & send , signals back to CNS (collection of neurons=ganglion) |
| What is the most common type of cell in the nervous system? | glial cells |
| common function of glial cells is to insulate neuronal axons. What is different about the glial cells provide this support in the CNS vs. PNS? | in CNS; glial cells regulate neurotransmission & help form blood-brain barrier. PNS shwann cells create a myelin sheath for faster conduction |
| Be able to label the parts of a neuron and understand the direction of electrical conduction | dendrites: receive signals from other nerves cell bodies: signals travel throuh it & it decreases further it travels axons axon terminal: send signals to other cells |
| What are the three main processes necessary for neuronal signaling? | graded potential, action potential, & synaptic signaling |
| what is voltage | a difference in electrical potential, tells us something about the amt work that can be done |
| How does the Na+/K+ ATPase create the resting membrane potential of a neuron? | it moves 3 Na+ out and it brings 2 Ka+ in |
| what is a graded signal | they integrate input & determine if signal will be passed on |
| What is impulse dissipation and how might it relate to temporal summation? | current leakage, cytoplasmis resistance, # of Na+ gates opend. if two sub threshold potential arrive at trigger zone within a short period of time they may sum & create action potential |
| What is the important event or functional role of the axon hillock? | so if a graded potential reaches it, voltage gated Na+ channels open |
| Compare and contrast graded vs action potentials using Table 8-3 | graded potential: determines if nueron fires an action potential action potential |
| Fully understand the steps of the action potential, the proteins involved, and the step-wise movement of the important ions. | Resting potential: na+ is higher outside the neuron, while K+ is higher on the inside. Na+/K+ pump is always working |
| the steps of the action potentials; depolarization | The Na+ channel opens & the Na+ enters the neuron. the interiro becomes + & the outside become - |
| the steps of the action potential; peak depolarization | Na+ channel closes, K+ channels open & K+ leave the neuron. |
| the steps of the action potential; return to resting potential | - on the inside & + on outside, the ions are switched, & need to return to the proper resting potential |
| Why is an action potential unidirectional and/or what causes the refractory period? | frequency of action potential directly proportional to stimulus intensity, larger diameter axons conduct action potential faster than smaller, myelinated axons conduct action potential faster than unmyelinated |
| How can a neuron communicate differences in stimulus intensity? | Frequency of action potentials is proportional to stimulus intensity |
| How and why does axon diameter influence the speed/efficiency of neuronal signaling? | Larger diameter axons conduct action often tails faster than smaller diameter axons |
| how does myelination influence the speed/effiency of neuronal signaling? | by acting as an electrical insulator, myelin grealty speeds up action potential conduction |
| what is saltatory conduction? | ion channel open/closing slows conduction, myelination increases insulation & decreases leakage so it can get awar w/ fewer channels. |
| What is the Babinski reflex and how does it involve myelination? | where the big toe bends backward & the others go forward. It happens by the time your 2 yrs & to adulthood which means there normal development of full myelination |
| describe the steps of synaptic transmission step 1 | Action potential depolarizes the axon terminal. |
| describe the steps of synaptic transmission step 2 | depolarization opnes volatge gated Ca+ channels & Ca2+ enters cell |
| describe the steps of synaptic transmission step 3 | calcium entry triggers exocytosis & synaptic vesicle contents |
| describe the steps of synaptic transmission step 4 | neurotransmitter diffusses across the synaptic cleft & binds w/ the receptos on the postsynaptic cell |
| What makes an neurotransmitter excitatory vs. inhibitory? | binding of glutamate is exicitatory neurotransmitter, increases the positivity of cell bringng it closer to firing, GABA is inhibitory neurotransmitter that clams or reduces the amt of action potential being fired |
| Name two different ways cells can actively regulate signals in the synapse. | by opening channels |
| What are the cellular mechanisms involved in long-term potentiation? [i.e. What does the post-synaptic cell do and how might the pre-synaptic cell respond to "strengthen the synapse".] | glutamate binds to AMPA & NMDA channels. the post synaptic cell depolarizes from the chanels of Na+ entry through AMPA. when AMPA receptos (bind to - charged glutamate) are increase allowing more calcium ions enter having higher exictatory response |
| Describe the physiological switch controlling hormonal regulation of circadian rhythm | photoreceptors in eye trigger switch between - melatonin |
| name and describe the mechanisms of signal integration spatial summation | spatial summation: 3 exictatory neurons fire their graded potential separately are below threshold. graded potential arrive @ trigger zone together & action potential is generated |
| name and describe the mechanims of signal integration temporal summation | temporal summation: if neuron is stimulated multiple times in close proximity, can sum to threshold. can be excitatory (as above) or inhibitory |
| name and describe the mechanisms of signal integration long term potentiation | long term potentiation: there is positive feedback on pre-synaptic release, increase post synaptic sensitivity, strengthens synapses, & important in learning/memory |
| what is a nerve? | electrical impulses between your brain & rest of body |
| What is an afferent pathway? What is an efferent pathway? | afferent pathway- ascending pathway from receptors to PNS to CNS. efferent pathway-descending pathway exiting the CNS, to PNS to muscle (effector) |
| Understand the basic organizational scheme of somatosensory input and motor output | somatosensory (afferent input)- CNS -somatic or autonomic repsonse(efferent output) sensory info transmitted to CNS via afferent (somatosensory) neuron sensory response transmitted from CNS to effector via efferent (motor) neuron |
| Name three general types of structures used to protect the central nervous system. | The bony tissue, mambranous tissue (meninges), & cerebrospinal fluid & "blood-CSF barrier" |
| What cellular feature is used by ependymal cells in the choroid plexus AND by cells forming the blood vessels delivering blood to the brain? | they line intenal cavities of brain & spinal cord. form choroid plexus with nearby blood capillaries, Helps produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), Liquid that bathes CNS and fills its cavities |
| Why is the color of fluid from a spinal tap a potentially useful diagnostic for disease? | the color of the fluid from spine is important to know if there is a problem or complication in brain by the color ( if dark or brown ish indicated a problem) |
| What is white v grey matter in the nervous system and how does their distribution differ between the brain and spinal cord? | grey matter is mainly found in the outer layers, in spinal cord it forms the core 'butterfly' shape. white matter refers areas of CNS which host majority of axons. |
| brain stem and function | regulationof involuntary functions ( midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata) |
| cerebellum and function | movement coordination (process sensory info to cooridnate movements) |
| diencephalon and function | sensory integration; homeostasis, endocrine function (thalamus, hypothalamus, pituutary gland, pineal gland) |
| cerebrum and function | voluntary actions; perception, emotion, learning & memory (cerebral cortex, basal nuclie, limbic system) |
| what is cerebral lateralization (asymetric brain specialization)? | the distribution of functional areas in two cerebral hemispheres is not symmetrical |
| what are three basic methods to study specialization of human brain? | use animal models, take advantage of accidents, brain imaging |
| describe how an EEG works | he electrodes detect tiny electrical charges that result from the activity of your brain cells |
| What is the autonomic nervous system? | sensory input ( afferent) from CNS through autonomic involuntary (efferent) which has sympathetic & parasympathetic. target cell is smooth or cardiac muscle is automatic |
| What are the main divisions of the autonomic nervous system? | the two main division of autonomic nervous system is sympathetic and parasympathetic |
| Compare and contrast the two main divisions | sympathetic activates the fight or flight response during a threat or perceived danger. parasympathetic restores the body to a state of calm |
| Be aware of the types of sensory input that might cause changes in autonomic pathways | sensory input somatosensory & visceral receptors. homeostatic controls center located in hypothalamus, ons, medulla. motor ouptu leads to autonomic response of muscle &/or endocrine cells. |
| What is similar about sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways? | autonomic = involuntary effector, 2 (or more) in a series; divergence. they both use acteylcholine & nicotinic receptor in the preganglionic neuron |
| What are three differences between sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways? | 1. postganglion neurotransmitter & effecotr targets 2. anatomical differences point of organ from CNS 3. anatomical differences length of preganglionic vs. postganglionic neurons |
| How does the anatomical arrangement of sympathetic pathways facilitate “mass activation”? | preganglionic axons are shorter & postganglionic axons are longer. sympathetic division facilitates activation of many structures simultaneously (mass activation). ( a result of short preganglionic axons w/ extensive branching.) |
| What is dual activation? | most organs have dual innervation, most sympathetic-parasympathetic signals are antagonists (some cooperative). they receive competing inputs from the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions |
| Name an example of the antagonistic effects of sympathetic vs parasympathetic activation. | Sympathetic division induces dilation of the pupil while the parasympathetic division induces the pupil to constrict. sympathetic division speeds up heart rate while the parasympathetic division slows it down |
| What is an exception to the general rule of antagonistic effects? | sweat glands and smooth muscle in most blood vessels. These tissues are innervated only by the sympathetic branch and rely strictly on tonic control |
| How is it possible that both the autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system can target muscles using the same neurotransmitter (acteycholine)? | because they use this neurotransmitter in the pregangiolic neuron to help activate the nicotinic receptor? |
| How can the same signal cause different responses and be used to control different things? | it can cause a different response using neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, & beta blockers |
| Why might sympathetic neurons not use breakdown enzymes to regulate synaptic transmission? | the reuptake NE or waits for it to diffuse away. Because monoamine oxidase deactivates dopamine, serotonin & epinephrine. |
Created by:
nora.michele