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GEOL 118 Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| regolith | unconsolidated sediments, rock fragments, or soil |
| mass wasting | the gravitationally caused downward slope of sediment |
| failure | the breaking/flowing/collapsing of sediment |
| vector | a quantity that has both magnitude and direction |
| normal stress | a push or pull that is perpendicular to a surface |
| shear stress | a stress that moves one part of a material sideways past another |
| stable slope | a slope in which materials tend to stay in place |
| unstable slope | a slope in which materials tend to move downward |
| the downward movement of materials on an unstable slope: _____ _______ | slope failure |
| safety factor | a number that represents the stability of a slope |
| equation to find safety factor: | safety factor = resistance stress ÷ downslope shear stress |
| if the safety factor is greater than one, the slope is _____ | stable |
| cohesion | the attraction of mineral grains towards each other while sliding |
| angle of repose | the sharpest angle a slope can have without giving into gravity |
| talus piles | an accumulation of fallen rock fragments on the base of a cliff |
| failure surface | the plane of weakness in which a mass moves downslope during sliding |
| a layer of regolith in which water remains frozen all year: ______ | permafrost |
| a type of creep in tundra regions, in which permafrost melts and begins to slide: ______ | solifluction |
| a mass of rock that is sliding down: _____ | slump |
| the exposed upslope edge of the failure surface: _____ ______ | heat scarp |
| a bumpy/irregular surface is a ______ surface | hummocky |
| a slurry of volcanic ash and debris: _______ | lahar |
| mass wasting that involves displacement on a horizontal failure surface: ______ ______ | lateral spreading |
| the viscosity of mafic lava is _____ (high, medium, low) | low |
| when lava becomes solidified in mid-air, we get _______ _______ | volcanic bombs |
| if a mass-wasting event involves more than one type of movement, it's called a ______ landslide | complex |
| mass wasting that occurs underwater: ________ mass wasting | submarine |
| the throat of a volcano is... | the tube by which gas and lava reach Earth's surface |
| huge craters are called ______ | calderas |
| broad, gently-sloped volcanoes are called _____ volcanoes | shield |
| cone-shaped volcanoes with lava and pyroclastic debris layers: _________ | stratovolcanoes |
| lava flows further at which type of volcano, shield volcanoes or stratovolcanoes? | shield volcanoes |
| which have more explosive eruptions, shield volcanoes or stratovolcanoes? | stratovolcanoes |
| cinder cones are... | cone-shaped tephra piles |
| smallest type of volcano: ______ ______ | cinder cones |
| difference between effusive and explosive eruptions: | explosive ones are more dangerous than effusive ones |
| phreatic explosion: | an explosion of water |
| notes about the 1883 Krakatau Eruption: (3 details) | this phreatic explosion was 5,000 times greater than the Hiroshima atomic bomb, caused a tsunami |
| for mafic magmas, _______ eruptions are rare | explosive |
| the higher viscosity and higher volatile levels of a magma make it more ______ | explosive |
| VEI stands for: | volcanic explosivity index |
| what is the volcanic explosivity index based on? | the volume of erupted debris |
| the higher the VEI, the more ______ | debris released (or tephra) |
| lithified rock or ash: _____ | tuff |
| volcanoes can collapse if the VEI is over __ | 6 |
| large, explosive ashfall can cause global ______ | cooling |
| were there any deaths in the 2018 Kilauea Eruption? | no |
| what causes breathing problems and crop destruction after a volcano? | ash |
| when a lot of ash is produced, _____ are cancelled | flights |
| are short-term predictions possible for volcanoes? | yes |
| what precedes volcanic eruptions? | rising magma |
| seismicity with volcanoes occurs when... | magma breaks rocks |
| (T/F) sometimes there's seismicity with no eruption | TRUE |
| a ____________ model can predict a volcanic eruption | supercomputer |
| why is the event that occurred in Yungay, Peru classified as a secondary disaster? | the landslide that occurred was triggered by a 7.9 magnitude EQ |
| bedrock is AKA.. _____ | regolith |
| difference in elevation between locations: ______ | relief |
| titled ground between locations at different elevations: _____ | slope |
| the removal of material due to moving ice, water, and air: _______ | erosion |
| what does VONA stand for? | Volcanic Observatory Notifications for Aviation |
| a group of tsunamis in a body of water: | tsunami wave train |
| near-field tsunamis: | a tsunami that reaches the shore close to its source |
| far-field tsunamis : | a tsunami that reaches the shore far from its source |
| drawback: | when waves recede before a tsunami occurs |
| tsunami elevation: | the vertical distance between the top of the tsunami and the shore |
| inundation distance: | the horizontal distance between the shoreline and where the rising water of the tsunami stops |
| run-up elevation: | the vertical distance between the shoreline and point of lowest tsunami elevation |
| the push of a moving fluid is called _____ pressure | dynamic |
| mega tsunami: | tsunami with a wave height over 100 meters |
| flank collapse: | a large mass moving down the side of a volcano or oceanic island |
| _______ indicate force direction and magnitude | vectors |
| the gravity force vector can be broken into two forces: | normal and downslope force |
| normal force is ______ to a surface | perpendicular |
| downslope force is ______ to a surface | parallel |
| resistance to sliding: ______ | friction |
| what are safety factors used for? | to judge a slope's stablity |
| sigma d is _____ force, sigma r is _____ force | downslope, resistance |
| if the safety factor is greater than 1, is the slope stable? | yes |
| how to find safety factor: | sigma r divided by sigma d |
| friction prevents _____ | slip |
| grains sticking together is called _____ | cohesion |
| damp grains have _____ (more/less) cohesion than dry ones | more |
| too much water does what to cohesion? | decreases it by separating grains |
| angle of repose: | the maximum angle that a substance can maintain before falling down on the sides |
| planes of weakness: | surfaces with less composition strength |
| failure surface: | where movement begins on a weak plane |
| layers of wet clay and sand, foliation planes, and joints are all examples of _____ __ ______ | planes of weakness |
| the ______ of planes of weakness relative to slope angle is very important | placement |
| which is more dangerous: weak planes oriented parallel or perpendicular to the ground | parallel |
| mass wasting events are distinguished according to 4 criteria: | material type, movement velocity, moving mass character, and movement environment |
| rotational slump: | rock and regolith move down a concave failure surface |
| toe: | downslope end of a slump block |
| head scarp: | the upslope edge of the failure surface |
| saprolite: | weathered, weak porous rock of clay and quartz |
| rockfalls are common in what season? | spring |
| rock that breaks free and tumbles down a slope: _____ | rockslides |
| sediment or lavas dumped onto the ocean floor, slides down a slope: | submarine mass wasting |
| undercutting: | removal of support at the base of a slope |
| what type of buoy senses the presence of tsunamis? | DART buoys |
| the word tsunami comes from what language? | Japanese |
| recurrence interval of global tsunamis: | 15-20 years |
| tsunami wave characteristic depend on three factors: | how big it is, velocity of movement, amount of movement |
| faster-moving masses generate ______ tsunamis | larger |
| a wave produced by the movement of solid material against water: | tsunami |
| deeper water leads to a ______ tsunami | faster |
| tsunami waves _____ when they reach a shallower place of water | refract |
| when the back waves of a tsunami catch up to the front, the tsunami becomes _____ | tall |
| in a tsunami wave train, the highest wave is always first (true/false) | false |
| most calamitous of all natural disasters: large ________ | tsunamis |
| wave height varies with _____ along a coast | location |
| maps that tell residents when to escape before a tsunami: ______ ______ _____ | tsunami indundation maps |
| tsunami waves are thought of as a "_____" of water | plateau |
| the surface and near-surface realm of the Earth that maintains the life of organisms with its materials: _______ ______ | critical zone |
| land subsidence: | the gradual sinking of land over time |
| soil destruction: (3 components of it) | the depletion of nutrients and carbon from soil, the contamination of soil, or the erosion of it |
| when large bodies of land enter water, they cause ______ | tsunamis |
| the Storegga tsunami was generated by a ______ | landslide |
| the movement of water from reservoir to reservoir: _______ _____ | hydrologic cycle |
| surface water: | the portion of the hydrologic cycle that is at the surface of Earth |
| pyroclastic flow can surprisingly cause ______ | tsunamis |
| global water crisis (2) | a stealth disaster in which we don't have access to clean water |
| watershed: | the land area putting water into a bigger body of water |
| most common cause of tsunamis: | earthquakes |
| not all earthquakes generate _________ | tsunamis |
| what type of data triggers tsunami watches? | seismic data |
| what does DART buoys stand for? | deep-ocean assessment and reporting of tsunamis |
| what country is particularly advanced in the sense of tsunamis? | Japan |
| freshwater depletion happens when... | the amount of water leaving a body of water exceeds the amount coming in from the watershed |
| algal blooms in water: ________ | eutrophication |
| the increase of salinity in water: | salinification |
| 4 ways to mitigate tsunamis: | signage, evacuation destinations, warning systems, education |
| _______ are implemented to hold back tsunami waters | seawalls |
| a small, open space in sediment or rock: _____ | pore |
| porosity: | total volume of an open space |
| permeability: | the degree to which a liquid can flow through a material |
| recharge: | process by which water replenishes aquifer |
| aquifer: | a water source that has pore spaces where water can be pumped out |
| water table: | upper area at which the ground is saturated |
| water table drops if... | water is pumped out faster than replenished |
| 2 reasons that groundwater is depleted: | over-extraction, drought |
| groundwater is usually a _______ resource | nonrenewable |
| 4 ways that we anthropogenically contaminate groundwater: | chemicals, sewage, leaking fuel, agricultural deposits |
| natural aquifer contamination can come from ______ | minerals |
| there is a growing lack of water _____ on Earth | security |
| 2 components to lack of water security: | physical scarcity and economic scarcity |
| physical scarcity of water: | there is not enough water |
| economic scarcity of water: | there is enough water, but economic reasons make the water unfit or unavailable |
| (T/F) water conservation and overall economic growth can occur together | true |
| Karst: | process where rock dissolves to leave gaps in the ground |
| drip irrigation is an investment to prevent what? | water waste |
| limestone is easily dissolved by _____ water | acidic |
| caverns: | open underground spaces |
| sinkholes: (what are they, what causes them) | circular pits caused by cavern collapse |
| a landscape with numerous sinkholes: ______ ______ | karst terrain |
| cave networks are common in ______ terrains | karst |
| sinkholes commonly form in places with ______ bedrock | limestone |
| 3 possible triggers for sinkholes: | heavy rain, building construction, and lowering water table |
| expanding communities _____ (increase/decrease) sinkhole disaster risk | increase |
| sinkholes are rarely _____ | fatal |
| why are sinkholes common in Florida? | there's a lot of limestone there |
| does the government take much action to prevent sinkholes? | no |
| geophysicist detect _____ to predict sinkholes | caverns |
| gravity survey: | special instruments detect tiny changes in gravity field |
| seismic reflection profiling: | measure sound waves to detect sinkholes |
| land subsidence: | when the land sinks over a broad area |
| when water is pumped out of the ground, land _____ occurs | subsidence |
| when you drain groundwater, the ground sinks ______ (evenly/unevenly) | unevenly |
| _____ can form when the land subsides unevenly | fissures |
| extraction of water causes pressure in sediment pores to decrease: _____ ______ | land subsidence |
| _______ is a key freshwater source in California | groundwater |
| ______ can measure land subsidence | satellites |
| 3 examples of atmospheric disasters | hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards |
| what is air made of? (percents, excluding water) | 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 0.04% carbon |
| water vapor is very ______ | important |
| water vapor ______ to form rain or snow | precipitates |
| water vapor can make up to about _____% of the air | 5% |
| air contains water vapor even if there are no ______ | clouds |
| calcite chemical formula: | CaCO3 |
| clouds may be in what two forms? | liquid water droplets or ice crystals |
| anthropogenic gases and aerosols create _____ air | polluted |
| _____% of the Earth's population breathes polluted air | 90 |
| 2 types of pollutants: | primary and secondary |
| primary pollutants definition + example: | emitted directly from a source, ex: vehicle exhaust |
| secondary pollutants definition + example: | when primary pollutants react with sunlight, ex: ozone |
| _____ _____ _____ is a measure that ranks air and informs people of risks | Air Quality Index |
| ______ from polluted air can get launched into people's lungs | particulates |
| wind direction: | the compass direction from which the air is coming |
| humidity: | the amount of water vapor in the air |
| air pressure: | the weight of air above a location |
| low pressure weather is usually _____ (good/bad) weather | bad |
| microscopic droplets of water in the atmosphere produces: | fog or haze |
| cloud clover: | the portion of the sky that is being covered by clouds |
| the rate at which the environmental temperature changes with the height of the atmosphere | environmental lapse rate |
| water phase change: | when water in one state converts into another |
| latent heat: | the energy needed for a phase change |
| the sum of all kinetic energy in a material | thermal energy |
| air pressure and density are high at the earth's ________ | surface |
| air pressure _____ from place to place | varies |
| average land surface pressure is how many bars? | 1 |
| we use _____ to measure pressure | bars |
| the portion of air pressure caused by water vapor: | vapor pressure |
| dry air has a _____ water vapor pressure | lower |
| saturated air: | contains all of the water vapor that it can hold |
| RH stands for... | relative humidity |
| 2 reasons we care about water vapor? | it can precipitate, it provides energy that helps to drive storms |
| the kinetic energy of air molecules determines its __________ | temperature |
| heat always flows from _____ to _____ | hot to cool |
| are the air molecules closer together in hot air or cool air? | cool air |
| does moist air have a high or low vapor pressure? | high |
| saturation vapor pressure: | the atmosphere's vapor holding capacity |
| the amount of water vapor in the air _____ as temperature increases | increases |
| what does relative humidity mean? | how close the air is to saturation |
| 2 variables that determine relative humidity: | the amount of water vapor in the air, the air's vapor capacity |
| how do we calculate relative humidity? | vapor pressure/saturation vapor pressure x 100 |
| relative humidity _____ as temperature increases | decreases |
| these devices rise to 20km in the air, measuring temperature, moisture, wind etc: _______ _______ | weather balloons |
| weather radar systems transmit pulses of _________ | microwaves |
| how do we find distance? (equation) | velocity x time |
| distance is calculated from... | the travel time of reflected energy |
| the strength of a returned radar signal: _____ ________ | radar reflectivity |
| high reflectivity of microwaves indicate... | heavy rain |
| radar that can also calculate wind speed and direction: | doppler radar |
| atmospheric temperature changes with _____ | altitude |
| two main layers of the atmosphere, in order of closest to Earth's surface: | troposphere, stratosphere |
| what is the troposphere heated by? | infrared radiation from land and water |
| what is the stratosphere heated by? | the ozone layer |
| _______ drives winds and causes precipitation | convection |
| is there convection in the stratosphere? | no |
| 2 ways that ice crystals grow: | snowflakes, rime |
| energy that is "hidden" in vaporized water: | latent heat |
| latent heat is ______ when water condenses and/or freezes | released |
| when it rains, ______ heat is released | latent |
| what is the energy needed to drive storms called? ______ _______ | latent heat |
| what happens when water vapor is converted to liquid water droplets? | latent heat is released and warms the air |
| rising air causes ____ pressure | low |
| when air rises, what fills the space it was once in? | air pulled in from the sides |
| why are low-pressure zones associated with rainstorms? | this is because rising air becomes cooler as it rises, and this causes rain |
| does rising air become warmer or cooler as it rises? | cooler |
| sinking air causes _____ pressure | high |
| winds blow from _____ to _____ pressure zones | high to low |
| each isobar line on a map represents... | the wind's pressure |
| pressure gradient: | the pressure change divided by distance |
| PGF stands for... | pressure gradient force |
| what is the pressure gradient force? | the force causing air to flow |
| widely-spaced isobars indicates _____ PGF | smaller |
| small PGF means ______ (slower/faster) winds | slower |
| Coriolis effect: | an air mass travelling across Earth will shift directions as the Earth turns |
| Coriolis effect ______ as air speed increases | increases |
| 3 things affecting winds | high to low pressure gradients, friction against surfaces, Coriolis effect |
| the Coriolis effect makes wind spiral into a ____ pressure zone | low |
| does the wind spiral clockwise or counterclockwise in low pressure zones? | counterclockwise |
| where on Earth is the air most likely to rise? | equator |
| what two characteristics of air will make it most likely to rise? | warm and moist air |
| Hadley Cells: | global scale atmospheric circulation at the equator |
| Hadley Cells are driven by ______ | convection |
| Hadley Cells affect the _______ | climate |
| what type of air flows towards the poles when we look at Hadley Cell circulation? (warm or cool) | warm air |
| Hadley Cells give us _____ winds | trade |
| northern hemisphere winds curve ______, while southern hemisphere winds curve ______ | southwest, northwest |
| ITCZ stands for... | Intertropical Convergence Zone |
| Intertropical Convergence Zone is where... | northeast and southeast winds converge |
| Walker Circulation: | a convective cell in the equatorial Pacific |
| why does the Walker Circulation occur? | because west Pacific is warmer than east Pacific |
| a very strong Walker Circulation: ___ _____ | La Niña |
| ENSO is aka... | El Niño |
| ENSO affects... | global weather patterns |
| an upward-moving airflow: | updraft |
| lifting mechanism: | the process by which air particles rise into the atmosphere |
| the leading edge of an advancing cold pool of winds | gust front |
| orographic lifting: | the forced ascent of air on the windward side of a mountain range |
| adiabatic expansion | an expansion of air in which no mass or energy is exchanged in the process |
| when are east-to-west winds along the equator in the Pacific Ocean the strongest? | during a La Niña year |
| monsoons exist when... | winds blow over both sea and land |
| the wind blows from the ocean to the land in the _____ (season) | summer |
| which season is wetter (summer or winter) in India and why? | summer, because air rises above the land surface from ocean |
| south Asia agriculture depends on ______ | Monsoons |
| the world's most intense monsoons occur where? | over south Asia |
| air masses: | large bodies of air with uniform temperature and humidity |
| cold air masses usually have ______ pressure | high |
| the names for each air mass depends on _____ and _____ | location and temperature |
| the two location-based terms for air masses are: | continental and maritime |
| the two temperature-based terms for air masses are: | polar and tropical |
| cold front: | a strong lifting of warm air |
| _____ air burrows under warm air | cold |
| is cold air denser or less dense than warm air? | denser |
| what happens when we lift warm air? | we get rain |
| a warm front happens when... | cold air retreats |
| why do we call it a cold front if the warm air is lifted? | because the temperatures we experience are cold |
| stationary front: | neither warm or cold air are moving in or out of the area |
| what is the jet stream? | the boundary between different air masses |
| the jet stream's air flow is ______ | uneven |
| as a result of the jet stream's flow being uneven, we get ____ pressure zones | low |
| which way to winds spiral around low pressure? | counterclockwise |
| cyclones in low-pressure zones form a ______ shape | comma |
| where is the cold front on the cyclone "comma"? | on the tail of the comma |
| cold fronts often cause what 3 disasters? | thunderstorms, tornadoes, windstorms |
| the path of destruction that a tornado leaves: | tornado track |
| 3 conditions must be present for a thunderstorm to occur: | warm and moist air, a lifting mechanism, atmospheric instability |
| 4 lifting mechanisms for a thunderstorm: | fronts, boundaries, mountains, rising air |
| unstable air occurs when... | an air parcel is less dense than surrounding air |
| air _______ as it rises | cools |
| do ordinary thunderstorms rotate around a vertical axis? | no |
| a lot of thunderstorms have a(n) ______ shape | anvil |
| 3 stages of an ordinary thunderstorm: | developing, mature, dissipating |
| thunderstorms organized in a line: | squall-line thunderstorms |
| when squall-line thunderstorms are present, a _____ _____ often develops | shelf cloud |
| shelf cloud: | a storm moving from right to left |
| in an ordinary thunderstorm, gust fronts _______ | combine |
| frontal squall lines: | thunderstorms occurring in a very long line |
| frontal squall line storms are often seen as... | the tail of the comma |
| derechos: | severe straight-line winds over a large region |
| 2 things that cause a derecho to form as part of a squall line: | intense downdrafts near the center of the squall line, a gust front |
| downdrafts create... | cold fronts |
| supercell thunderstorms often produce ______ | tornadoes |
| supercell thunderstorm: | a thunderstorm with a long-lasting, rotating updraft |
| mesocyclones: | counterclockwise-spinning updrafts in the core of supercells |
| a ______ cloud develops at the base of an updraft | wall |
| what type of lightning is the most common? | cloud-to-cloud |
| lighting _____ protect buildings | rods |
| lighting strikes create... | pressure/pressure waves |
| especially intense downdrafts: _____ | downbursts |
| a small downburst is called a ______ | microburst |
| gust front that is pushing out ahead of the squall line: | derechos |
| the energy for a thunderstorm comes from _______, but downdrafts cause more damage | updrafts |
| the repeated lifting of ice particles in updrafts causes... | large hail pieces |
| air sucked into a strong updraft generates ________ | tornadoes |
| how is a supercell thunderstorm different from an ordinary thunderstorm? | it has a mesocyclone inside of it |
| what is a mesocyclone? | a strong rotating draft |
| 3 things that a supercell thunderstorm contains: (two of them are the same) | mesocyclone, 2 downdrafts |
| tornado development occurs in association with ______ ______ downdrafts | rear flank |
| if a tornado gets really big, what can occur? | it can split into multiple tornadoes |
| what scale is used to determine tornado intensity? | enhanced-Fujita scale |
| what is the enhanced-Fujita scale based on? | damage |
| is the enhanced-Fujita scale based on wind speed? | NO |
| what country sees the most tornadoes? | US |
| most injuries and deaths from tornadoes are caused by: | flying debris |
Created by:
stuisl