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Intro to philosophy
FINAL EXAM
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define metaphysics | The study or the discourse surrounding the fundamental nature of reality itself. |
| Explain the appearance-reality dichotomy and provide an example of how it is used | Appearance-Reality Dichotomy. “Things are not always as they seem”. The ways things “appear” to the senses are not the same as what the things are in themselves. Ex. A desk. We see it as a desk, however it is made of many atoms and smaller things. |
| Who are the three types of “knowers” for Russell, and what are they most interested in? Additionally, how do each of these three come to “know” objects in their own ways? Provide an example for each. | Artist-Represent the details as accurately as possible. Ex. A bowl of fruit. Ordinary person- Wants to know the practical use of it? Ex. How does the fruit sustain me? Philosopher- The reality hidden behind appearances? Ex. What makes a fruit a fruit? |
| For Russell, what is philosophy’s primary limitation, yet greatest strength? Explain how this characteristic might be both a limitation and a strength at the same time. | Uncertainty. Uncertainty is a limitation of philosophy because many of the questions that it tries to answer seem unsolvable. However, this can also be viewed as a strength because this same encourages us to ask those “unsolvable” questions. |
| What is a priori knowledge, and how does it contrast with a posteriori knowledge? Give two examples for each. You may be as general or specific as you like. | A priori- Knowledge that is unlearned, prior to experience. Ex. instincts and math proofs. A posteriori- knowledge that is dependent on experience. Ex. Empirical and personal knowledge. |
| What is eudaimonia, and how does it relate to the central aim of philosophy for Socrates? What other aim does philosophy have? | Human flourishing. The primary aim of philosophy is to cultivate the excellence of the soul, and this relates to “eudaimonia” because Socrates describes it as “bringing higher good”. |
| How is Socrates’ manner of argumentation distinguishable from that of his accusers and the Sophists? What bearing might this have with respect to truth-telling as Socrates defines it? | Socrates' tone gradually becomes more informal, he tells his audience that he will be speaking naturally and from the heart. Socrates is insinuating that his accusers are not doing this, presenting rehearsed and fabricated versions of the truth. |
| Why does Socrates think that a fear of death is presumptuous? Additionally, what two things could death be, in Socrates’ opinion? | Socrates thinks that a fear of death is presumptuous because we do not truly know what death is like. In Socrates' opinion death could be: a dreamless sleep or metempsychosis. |
| What is the etymological definition of philosophy? In other words, what does “philosophy” literally translate to in the original Greek? | “Philos”- “love of something” Sophia: “wisdom” |
| How does Heidegger differentiate between “Being” and “being”? | Being- existence itself being- any ordinary object/ thing of our experience. Objective like a container/ receptacle for being(s) and subjective which is a quality belonging to beings. Hen Panta=All is one |
| What is the word Heidegger uses instead of the term “human being”? What does this word mean, and what is the significance of this redefinition? | “Dasein”- used to describe the experience of being specific to the human being. Heidegger uses dasein to stress the subjectivity’s worldly and existential features. |
| What is Logos as Heidegger describes it? What relation does it share with the Greek term arche? | Logos (word, language, and reason) the first principle of all reality (Archē) that patterns how things appear to us in experience. |
| What is the mind-body problem, and what is another name for it? | Given that consciousness doesn't seem to be a physical thing, how is that we can incorporate consciousness into our existing scientific worldview?. Another name for it is known as “hard problem of consciousness.” |
| Define physicalism | In order for something to be real, it must be explainable in physical terms. |
| How does Nagel, specifically, define the term “consciousness”? | Nagel describes the consciousness as the conscious is “something that it is like” to be that creature. An example can be conscience. |
| What is a phenomenological fact, and in what way(s) is it both objective and subjective at the same time? What differentiates this kind of objectivity from purely objective facts? | Phenomenal facts are subjective experiences influenced by individual perspectives, both objective and subjective, as they can be understood by others based on their unique experiences. |
| Explain the concepts of epistemic difference and ontological (or metaphysical) difference and how each might apply to the existence of consciousness. | Epistemological difference is the concept where an acceptance gap has both mental truths and physical truths. Ontological differences is the idea that there is a real categorical difference or gap between mental truths and physical truths. |
| What are the “two pillars” of Platonic metaphysics? | Immortality of the soul and The objects of knowledge are both real and unchangeable |
| What is the Platonic Tripartite Soul? Give a simple definition and then describe each type of soul that goes into its composition. Be sure to include each part’s function and provide an example of each type of soul. | Rational soul- the soul that can logically ration our own soul. Ex. Humans. Spirited soul- a soul that can have will that draws by moving around the world.Ex. animals. Appetitive soul- a soul which seeks intelligence physically to the world. Ex. viruses |
| What is a Form or Idea? How does it contrast with a particular? Give a specific example for each. | Forms and particular are distinct concepts, referring to how individual things appear to us, and particulars are how they are represented from an already set Form/Idea. Ex. beauty. Particulars Ex. mountains. |
| What is the physical object that Plato uses as an analogy for the Good? Explaining how the notion of intelligibility applies, what is the significance of this analogy? | The Sun is the physical object Plato used as an analogy for the good. The sun allows us to see the world, and then understand the viruses, ideas/forms. |
| In what ways does language play a role with respect to how objects and events are conceived between cultures? Reflect on this by showing your understanding of how English and Chinese are structured to reflect experience. | Language carries metaphysical baggage, forming the framework for our thinking. English is substantive, emphasizing essence, while Chinese is episodic, emphasizing actions. |
| What is the literal translation of the Daodejing? Break down the title into its constituent parts and then provide the full English translation. | Dao: “the Way”, “path”, “course” De: power, virtue, efficacy Jing: classic, Great Book, scripture. The classical scripture of the Way and its efficacy. |
| Why is it wrong to equate the “origin” of Dao with a western arche such as the Form of the Good? Define each term and explain the primary differences between the two. | The word archê its primary sense is “origin” or “source”; by extension it came to mean a kind of “first principle.” |
| What is the Buddhist concept of dukkha, and how does this concept share a relation with the notion of anatman as the Buddha conceived of it? Provide literal translation of each Sanskrit words and explain how they fit within the Buddhist worldview. | Dukkha: Suffering, bad horizons, unsatisfactoriness. Anatman: no-self (Soul) |
| What is the literal translation of karma? Describe how this concept is different from our common western understanding of it. | The literal translation is “action.” In the western understanding of karma it is the consequence of your actions while in the non-western understanding that karma is action that does anything related to reality. |
| What does it mean that all sentient beings are basically interdependent? Defining what this term means, demonstrate how it relates to the Buddhist concept of anatman. | Interdependence: the Buddhist notion that all things are entirely dependent on one another in order to be what they are essentially. Anatman is “no-self” |
| What does the Hindu term varna literally translate to? What is the significance of this term for Brahminical or Vedic religion and culture, and how does the Buddha challenge it? | Varna: Color. Braham is a light skin color also,Varna figured into the caste system in India.Buddha is allowing anyone from the caste system to join no matter their color. |
| What is the atman, and how does it figure into the metaphysical personality known as Brahman? Be sure to define the words Brahman and yoga in your response. | Atman is a sanskrit word which just means soul or self, but sometimes it’s translated as something like vital essence. It figures into metaphysics by releasing our soul back into communion with the eternal God. |
| Using your understanding of the terms nirvana and samsara, explain the primary objective of meditative practice, or any practice, in the Buddhist tradition. In other words, what is the reason we ought to commit to Buddhist practice in the first place? | Nirvana: release of suffering and Samsara: cycle of birth and rebirth. Primary objective is to reach enlightenment. |
| What is argumentation by refutation, where it is most often used geographically, and how does it contrast with argumentation by relegation? | Two or more mutually opposing positions where one is the clear winner and the other is eliminated by it. It contrasts because relegation connects the lesser view into the higher views perspective,used in the west. |
| What is the difference between the Intrinsic and Extrinsic models of relatedness? Which is foregrounded in western and non-western cultures? You may use a diagram to help answer this question. | Extrinsic- intrinsically related things so when the relation itself is removed, both parties remain the same. Intrinsic- is not related intrinsically, when the relation is removed, both are diminished in proportion of importance the relation has for us. |
| What is Cartesian Dualism? | the idea according to which there is not only an apparent (epistemic) difference between the mind and the body but a real, substantial difference (ontological). |
| Solipsism: | the only thing of which we can be 100% certain is the existence of one’s own mind. |
| What is the Cogito, and what does it mean? Provide the full phrase in English and then explain how it describes Descartes’ primary philosophical conclusion (you may want to talk about the “evil genius” to help answer this question). | Cogito- “ I think therefore I am” His self to be a “thinking thing” If a deceiver God is capable of deceiving Descartes, then Descartes must necessarily exist. |
| What is the difference between primary and secondary qualities? Provide two examples for each. | Primary qualities: make up objects we experience that are necessary/essential so it can exist. Ex. shape/form. Secondary quality: qualities that belong to objects that aren't essential yet make up the physical composition said objects. Ex. texture/color. |
| What is an Archimedean Point? Give the “historical” definition and then explain what it represents for Descartes. | Historically archimedean point is the hypothetical geographic “point” on the surface of earth where its mass rests in equal proportion, while philosophical definition is the “point” upon which all of our knowledge rests. |
| What are the “original foundations” of knowledge that Descartes believed must be subjected to methodical doubt? Why is this different from systematic, indiscriminate doubting? | Descartes believes he must methodically doubt the basis of his beliefs which he identifies as the senses. If we doubt the faculty of sensing, then all sensory data is also doubted. |
| For Descartes, why exactly are the senses unreliable or untrustworthy? | What we sense is often unreliable and untrustworthy. The senses deceive us all the time. |
| Explain Descartes’ distinction between impressions and perceptions. Be sure to include what “organ(s)” come(s) to know each of these and their associated functions. Why is perception a more epistemological solid basis for our knowledge? | Impressions are made through the senses, while perceptions are made through the mind. Impressions are using the eyes or sensory organ, while perceptions are made through the brain. Perception is more epistemological because the sense can be fooled. |
| According to Descartes, what is the Self? That is to say, what kind of “thing” am I? What is the significance of this? | Self- a “thinking thing”. Because he’s able to question things, he is real. |
| Define ethics (or moral philosophy) | Usually connects secular/government prescription. |
| What is deontology, and why is it considered a form of moral absolutism? Be sure to define both terms. | Deontology- ethical system dictating one’s conduct according to a maxim, not considering the consequences of their actions. Moral Absolutism-actions/behaviors that can be “good” or “bad” independent of circumstances or the consequences of that action. |
| What is the categorical imperative? Provide a definition and then explain how it is used. | The categorical imperative states that one must act on a maxim where they can make it a universal law, with the individual moral agent determining what maxim to make it obligatory for all humans. |
| Using your understanding of the term a priori, explain the role of reason in Kant’s moral theory of deontology. How does this contrast with the function of reason for Mill’s utilitarianism? | Kant’s deontology is who/ what is inherently good or bad is what subscribers to duty in relation to your moral principles. Mill focuses on what is desirable than that of will. a priori- prior to/ independent of experience. |
| What are the two principal aims of human life for Kant and which does Kant prioritize? Why might this be the case? | Happiness and cultivation of a good will. By happiness, it typically means “that which gratifies me,” even if temporarily. Categorical imperative, individual moral agent determining what maxim may be made a universal law for human beings to follow. |
| What is the distinction Kant makes between pathological love and practical love? What is the significance of this distinction with respect to duty? | The distinction between pathological love and practical love is that pathological love is “setated in the propensions of sense.”, while practical love is the result of a free will desiring nothing outside the good of the other. |
| What is utilitarianism, and why is it considered a form of consequentialism? Be sure to define both terms. | Utilitarianism is an act to produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Consequentialism there are no intrinsically evil actions, but only those that better or worse contribute to the proliferation of happiness. |
| Explain why consequentialism might be understood as morally relativistic. | Consequentialism could be understood as morally relativistic because they both are dependent on the circumstances and the result. |
| Applying the concept of the will, explain what the “human difference” is for human morality. In other words, why is human behavior not reducible to mere animal being? | Men are not simply animals with biological drives, and thus are capable of prioritizing higher pleasures over lower. Higher pleasures pursue education, aesthetics, fine dining, music, reading, and creative activities. |
| What is Utility, and why does it not simply degenerate into an individualistic hedonism? | Utility is happiness, pleasure, and satisfaction. Mill feels like the pleasures of the mind are more conductive to utility and is the opposite of blandly self-interested individualism. |
| Define the Greatest Happiness Principle. | Actions that are morally “right” that tend to produce happiness and morally “wrong” that tends to produce unhappiness. |
| Who is Jeremy Bentham, and in what two ways does Mill’s utilitarianism differ from his earlier theory of utility? | He is known for utilitarian calculus utility with different categories of pleasures. |
| For Mill, why is it better to be a human being dissatisfied than a beast satisfied? What does this suggest about human happiness opposed to that of non-human animals? | Because of the superior quality of human experience. |
| What is Manichaeism? | An old persian religion that was initiated by a prophet Mani. |
| What is moral concupiscence? | the human being's innate drive/compulsion towards sin. |
| For Augustine, why is the theological virtue of faith understood to be suprarational? | Theological virtue of faith is understood to be supranational to be “beyond” the limit of reason, while being fully inclusive of it. |
| How would Christian thinkers such as Augustine and Aquinas define the soul (anima)? In what way(s) does this definition figure into the Christian notion of sin? | The soul is the form of the material body, containing it, and no material reality is devoid of soul. Sin is a malformation of the soul that disorients human minds and wills. |
| Briefly explain the following three metaphysical views of evil: 1) the Gnostic or Manichaean, 2) the Neoplatonic, and 3) the Monotheistic. | 1. Good and evil both complementary and opposing but equally necessary for reality. 2. Rejects evil as a substance, instead evil is the privation of the good. 3. Evil isn't a substance; however it's also not nothing, but a perversion of the created order. |
| What is wrong with Augustine’s initial understanding of God? How does the burning bush narrative from Exodus 3:14 help resolve this misconception? Define the Thomistic term ipsum esse in your response. | A ‘being’ in the world of sensory (material)experience. An infinitely extended substance like water, air, aether, light, and ect. God is not an object (a being) in the world because he is distinct, separate, and transcendent from it. |
| What two features must belong to the notion of transcendence in order to pertain to the Christian conception of God? | God is wholly “other” than his creation. If we talk about an aspect of creation, we are not talking about God. There is an analogy of being between God’s existence and the existence of created things. |
| What similarities are there between the Platonic theory of Forms and the Judeo-Christian notion of God and the divine Logos? Be sure to define what Logos is for Christian philosophy. | Logos: “word”, “reason”,”language”. the patterning of the cosmos (order) that gives over intelligibility to all created realities visible to invisible. The logos is the only begotten son of God and thus consubstantial with him. |
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