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ap psychology unit 5
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Memory | Learning that has persisted over time, information that has been stored and can be retrieved |
| Information-Processing Model | Model of memory, compares our mind to a computer in a series of three stages |
| Encoding: | The process of putting information into the memory system “Get information into our brain” |
| Automatic Processing | We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly at once where you don’t think about it, such as the following: Space, Time, Frequency |
| Effortful Processing: | Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. You must purposely try to remember. There are three components to effortful processing |
| Storage: | The creation of a permanent record of the encoded information “Retain the information” |
| Retrieval | The calling back of stored information on demand when it is needed “Get the information back out” |
| Recall | Bringing a thought or idea learned previously (stored in memory) into conscious awareness (fill in the blank test without word bank) |
| Recognition | Identification of learned items when they are presented (multiple choice test) |
| Levels-of Processing Model: | How long and how well we remember information depends on how deeply we process the information when it is encoded |
| Shallow Processing: | Encoding on a basic level based on the structure of appearance |
| Structural | encode physical qualities |
| Phonemic | encode sound |
| Deep Processing | Occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories |
| semantically | (meaning based) |
| Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model of Memory: | Three different memory systems characterized by time frames Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory |
| Sensory Memory: | External events from our senses are held just long enough to be perceived |
| Iconic Memory: | Sensory input to the visual system goes into iconic memory, duration of less than a second |
| Echoic Memory: | The branch of sensory memory used by the auditory system Echoic memory is capable of holding a large amount of auditory information, but only for 3–4 seconds |
| Haptic Memory: | The branch of sensory memory used by the sense of touch Sensory receptors all over the body detect sensations which are briefly held in haptic memory before vanishing or being transported to short-term memory |
| Short-Term Memory | Also known as working memory. It holds only a few items and only lasts for about 30 seconds or so |
| working memory, | The working memory is where we focus on information that is useful or needed right then |
| Long-Term Memory: | All the memories we hold for periods of time longer than a few seconds |
| Short-Term Memory (STM) | The capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period of time (about 30 seconds) |
| Baddeley’s Working Memory: | An active system that processes the information in short-term memory where it can be manipulated |
| Working-Memory Capacity: | Young adults have more working memory capacity (ability to multitask is higher) |
| Memory Span: | Number of items a person can remember and repeat back using attention and short-term memory Experiments by George Miller demonstrated that the capacity of STM is approximately seven (plus or minus two) unrelated bits of information at one time |
| Chunking | Increase the amount of information stored in STM at one time, combine or group bits of related information |
| Hierarchical Encoding: | A method of image coding that represents an image using a sequence of frames of information. The first frame is followed by frames that code the differences between the source data and the reconstructed data from the previous frames for that image |
| Maintenance Rehearsal: | Repeating information to prolong its presence in STM, can increase the length of time information can be stored in short-term memory to about thirty seconds |
| Long-Term Memory (LTM): | Final stage of memory that can store information indefinitely, based on the relative importance to the individual |
| Explicit “Conscious” Memory (Declarative Memory) | Memory of facts, concepts, and events that require conscious recall of the information and can verbalize |
| Episodic Memory: | Used for more contextualized memories. They are generally memories of specific moments, or episodes, in one’s life |
| Semantic Memory | Impersonal memories involves abstract factual knowledge, It is for the type of information that we learn from books and school: faces, places, facts, and concepts |
| Implicit “Unconscious” Memory: | Memories of how to do something, memories are accessed without conscious awareness—they are automatically translated into actions without us even realizing it |
| Eidetic Memory | A person has visual images clear enough to be retained for at least thirty seconds and realistic in their vividness |
| Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): | Strengthening of a synaptic connection that happens when the synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires ad excites another neuron LTP occurs in the hippocampus, transfer of information from short-term to long-term |
| Amygdala | Involved in declarative and episodic memory, Primary processor of emotional reactions |
| Cerebellum | Involved in implicit memories (conditioned associations |
| Basal Ganglia: | Memory retrieval and procedural memory (creating & maintaining habits) |
| Amnesia | Unable to form new memories, injury or trauma can create problems with various brain functions |
| Retrograde Amnesia: | Forgetting events that occurred before an injury or trauma, but not basic facts or language abilities |
| Anterograde Amnesia | Occurs when the hippocampus is damaged, resulting in the inability to “create” long-term memories and forcing a person to always live in the present |
| Storage Decay, Hermann Ebbinghaus | First to conduct experimental studies on memories by using himself as a subject |
| Learning Curve | the relationship between the increase of learning and experience |
| Forgetting Curve, | the exponential loss of information shortly after learning it |
| Serial Position Effect | When we try to retrieve a long list of words we usually recall the last words and first words best, forgetting the words in the middle |
| Primary Effect | refers to better recall of the first items from greater rehearsal |
| Recency Effect | refers to better recall of he last items, still in working memory |
| Trace Decay Theory: | Assumes that memories leave a trace in the brain. A trace is some form of physical and/or chemical change in the nervous system. |
| Encoding Failure: | Occurs when a memory was never formed in the first place (without effort, many memories never form) |
| Retrieval Failure | The failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded |
| Tip-of-the-Tongue State: | The feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable |
| Interference Theory | Theory of forgetting, two ways to interfere with the creation of new memories |
| Retroactive (Recent) interference | new memories impair the retrieval of older memories |
| Proactive (Previous) interference | a process by which prior learning inhibits or interferes with the recall of later learning |
| Motivated Forgetting-Repression: | Theory of forgetting by Sigmund Freud, the pushing of painful, embarrassing, or threatening memories out of awareness or consciousness |
| Motivated Forgetting-Suppression | Conscious process of deliberately trying to forget something that causes distress |
| Flashbulb Memory | Vivid and detailed memories that people create during times of personal tragedy, accident, or emotionally significant world events Can develop in response to big events in our own lives |
| Memory Reconstruction | Approach to understanding memory as a cognitive process and the errors that occur within it |
| Pseudo-Memories: | False memories that a person believes to be true |
| Elizabeth Loftus (1944): | Extensive research on memory construction and false memories and how memory is changeable, it is not always accurate |
| Misinformation effect | exposed to misleading information we tend to misremember |
| Source Amnesia: | The inability to remember the source of a memory while retaining its substance |
| Mnemonics | Memory aids when encoding information, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
| Peg Word System- | Mnemonic technique for memorizing lists, An object or image is visualized which holds or 'pegs' the information that needs to be recalled and makes it easier to remember |
| Method of Loci | Association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path |
| Retrieval Cue | Reminders associated with information we are trying to get out of memory, aid us in remembering |
| Priming | is activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously |
| State Dependent Memory | Memory retrieval is most efficient when individuals are in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed |
| Mood Congruent Memory | Recall of information that can be retrieved while in a mood similar to when it was acquired Applies only when moods are genuine and authentic, not temporary mood states |
| Context Dependent Memory: | Recall of information while in the same context of environment in which it was acquired |
| Distributed Practice, Hermann Ebbinghaus | Discovered that “cramming” information was not an effective strategy for remembering |
| Distributed Practice: | Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods |
| Massed Practice | Cramming the memorization of information or the learning of skills into one session |
| Testing Effect: | The finding that long-term memory is increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information through testing with proper feedback |
| Positive Transfer: | Mastery of one task aids learning or performing another |
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xavier8