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PSYC 102 Final Exam
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| cognition | a term psychologists use to refer to the mental activities associated with thinking |
| cognitive psychology | the scientific study of all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| mental representations | internal mental symbols that stand for some object, event, or state of affairs in the world |
| concepts | mental categories that group similar objects, events or people |
| prototype | the best example of a concept |
| basic level concepts | middle level concept in classification, tends to be the most frequently used (ex. spoon) |
| superordinate concepts | more broad concepts that include basic level concepts (ex. cutlery) |
| subordinate concepts | more specific concepts within basic-level concepts (ex. soup spoon) |
| 4 ways of solving problems | algorithm, estimation, trial and error, insight |
| algorithm | a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem |
| insight | a sudden, conscious change, and often novel realization of the solution to a problem |
| analogy | a comparison of two different things that are similar in some way |
| mental set | tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past |
| functional fixedness | the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving |
| restructuring | a new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution |
| judgement | conclusion drawn from some evidence |
| rational decisions are based on | logic and reasoning |
| bounded rationality | cognitive limitations that constrain one's ability to interpret, process ,and act on information |
| dual-processing theories | controlled and automatic system that helps us make decisions |
| controlled system | slower and efforful leading to more thoughtful and rational outcomes |
| automatic system | fast and effortless and leads to decent outcomes most of the time |
| heuristics | mental shortcuts that are quick, effortless, intuitive and automatic |
| representativeness heuristic | judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information |
| availiability heuristic | strategy for deciding how frequent or probable something is based on how easily it comes to mind |
| affect heuristic | a tendency to rely on automatically occurring affective responses to stimuli to guide our judgments of them |
| confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence |
| belief perserverance | clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
| framing | the way an issue is posed (loss or gain); how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements |
| loss aversion | the strong tendency to regard losses as considerably more important than gains of comparable magnitude - and, with this, a tendency to take steps (including risky steps) |
| overconfidence bias | holding unrealistically positive views oof oneself and one's performance |
| hindsight bias | the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it "i knew it all along" |
| phoneme | smallest unit of sound |
| morpheme | in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning |
| pragmatics | the appropriate use of language in different contexts |
| linguistic determinism hypothesis (Whorfian) | different languages impose different ways of understanding tat can constrain and shape our thinking |
| operant learning | learning by which actions lead to certain outcomes |
| overregularization errors | a language error made by children that involves existing rules of word formation. These errors reveal children's understanding of grammar |
| larynx | voice box that gives us the ability to produce speech |
| language acquisition device | Chomsky's concept of an innate, preqired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally |
| sensitive period | a limited phase in an individual's development where language acquisition takes plae |
| "Less is More" hypothesis (Newport) | children have more limited information-processing abilities, fewer analytic skills and less specific knowledge about how language works than adults do |
| intelligence | capability to think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, reason, plan, solve problems, learn from experience, and acquire knowledge |
| general intelligence (g factor) | a general intelligene factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test |
| fluid intelligence | the ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences, tackle unusual situations |
| crystalized intelligence | our accumalated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age |
| analytical intelligence | "book smarts"; ability to break down problems into component parts |
| creative intelligence | the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems |
| practical intelligence | "street smarts"; the ability to use information to get along in life |
| Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences | proposes seven areas of intelligence including: linguistic, logical-matematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal |
| mental age | a measure of intellegence test performance deviced by Binet; chronical age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance |
| intelligence quotient (IQ) | defined riginally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/c) x100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given is assigned a socre of 100. |
| eugenics | science dealing with improving hereditary qualities |
| achievement test | tests that measure a persons existing knowledge ans kills |
| aptitude test | a test designed to predict a person's future performance |
| Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) | the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performace (nonverbal) subtests |
| 3 criteria of an intelligence test | standardization, reliability, validity |
| standardization | defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group |
| reliability | the extent to which a test provides consistent results |
| split-half reliability | a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared |
| validity | the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to |
| content validity | the extent to which a test samples the behaviour that is of interest |
| test-retest reliability | using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency |
| predictive validity | the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure (ex. IQ predicting success in the workplace) |
| emotionality | intesity of emotional reactions (physical reactions) |
| worry | the thought that bad things will happen and that failure will occur |
| stereotype threat | a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype |
| achievement gap | disparity on a number of educational measures between the performance of groups of students, especially groups defined by gender, race, ethnicity, ability, and socioeconomic status |
| Genomewide complex-trait analysis (GCTA) | finds a heritability of intelligence that is a bit lower than the heritability found in studies that compare twins and other related individuals |
| enrichment | chances to stimulate one's thinking processes by encountering new information and new problems to solve |
| self-fulfilling prophecy | an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expactation come true |
| development psychology | a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan |
| cross-sectional design | research design that examines people of different ages at a sinle point in time |
| longitudinal design | research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time |
| teratogens | agents that damage the process of development, such as drugs and viruses |
| fetal alcohol syndrome | physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking |
| reflex | a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response |
| habituation | decresing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest decreases and they look away sooner |
| dishabituation | recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation |
| assimilation | interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas |
| accomodation | adapting oue's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information |
| Piaget's stages of cognitive development | (1) sensorimotor; (2) preoperational; (3) concrete operational; (4) formal operational |
| object permanence | the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived |
| neural organization | (1) neural proliferation; (2) synapic pruning; (3) myelination of axons |
| social referencing | reading emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation |
| attachment | an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closenesss to the caregiver and showing distress on separation |
| imprinting | the process by which certain animals from attachments during a critical period very early in life |
| temperament | a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity (usually based on genetics and can be seen from a young age) |
| symbolic representation | a mental representation that stands for something else (preoperational stage) |
| operation | imagine hoe things and objects might be different and imagining consequenxes without needing to see it happen |
| conservation | the understanding that objects can be the same volume/mass etc. despite changing form |
| Egocentrism | the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes |
| theory of mind | ability to reason about what other people know or believe |
| autobiographical memory | the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story |
| scaffolding | the support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth |
| 4 parenting styles | authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, ininvolved/disengaged |
| adolescence | the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence |
| stages of morality (Kohlbergs) | (1) preconvetional; (2) conventional; (3) postconventional |
| social identity | the "we" aspect of our self-concept |
| emerging adulthood | a period from about age 18 to the mid-tenties, when many in Western cultures ar e no longer adolescents by have not yet achieved full independence as adults |
| Erikson's Psychosocial stages | (1)struggle for intimacy, (2)struggle for generativity, (3)crisis of integrity |
| socioemtional selectivity theory | older adults become more selective about their social networks because of their high value on emotional satisfaction (higher age = death is near = spend time with familiar and rewarding relationships) |
| syndrome | a group of symptoms typical of a particular disease or condition |
| symptom | a change in body function that is felt by a patient as a result of a disease |
| psychological disorder | a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturnance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behaviour |
| psychopathology | scientific study of psychological disorders |
| 4 D's for the DSM-5 model | deviance, distress, dysfunction, danger |
| point prevelance | the percentage of people in a given population who have a given disorder at any particular point in time |
| lifetime prevalence | the percentage of people in a certain population who will have a given disorder at any point in their lives |
| clinical assessment | systematic evaluation and measurement of psychological, biological, and social factors in a person presenting with a possible psychological disorder |
| projective test | personality test, sucha s the Rorschach, that provides ambiguious stiuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics |
| preparedness theory | the idea that people are instinctively predisposed toward certain fears |
| flooding | a treatment for phobias in which clients are exposed repeatedly and intensively to a feared object and made to see that it is actually harmless |
| systematic desensitization | a type of exposure therapy (which is commonly used to treat phobias) that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. |
| one sesstion treatment (ost) | 3 hour loong single session therapy where the patient makes commitment to stay to help get over a phobia |
| diasthesis-stress model | states that the onset of mental illness involves the interaction of two key factors: a genetic predisposition and a stressor of some kind |
| specific phobia | an irrational, persistent fear of an object, situation, or social activity |
| social anxiety disorder | extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations |
| panic attack | anxiety disorder characterized by sudden onset of intense panic in which multiple physical symptoms of stress occur, often with feelings that one is dying |
| panic disorder | anxiety disorder characterized by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations |
| agoraphobia | fear of open spaces |
| generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) | anxiety disorder characterized by chronic excessive worry about multiple things accompanied by three or more of the following: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tenstion, and sleep disturbance |
| obessive compulsive disorder (OCD) | an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obessions) and/or actions (compulsions) |
| obession | a persistent, unwanted thought or idea that keeps recurring |
| compulsion | a ritualistic act that is intended to control the obsession |
| mental rituals | not visible compulsions such as counting, solving a math problem, or repeating a phrase in one's mind until anxiety is relieved |
| trauma and stress related disorders | disorder triggered by events that involve actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violation |
| acute stress disorder | an anxiety disorder in which fear and related symptoms are experienced soon after a traumatic event and last less than a month |
| post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) | an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience |
| cormorbidity | the appearance of multiple simultaneous psychological disorders in the same person |
| concordance rate | the percentage of twin pairs or other pairs of relatives that exhibit the same disorder |
| vicarious learning | learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action |
| mood-related disorders | disorders that involve prominent disturbances in a person's positive and negative feeling states |
| major depressive disorder | a modd disorder in which a person feels sad and hopeless for weeks or months |
| anhedonia | inability to feel pleasure |
| rumination | compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes |
| bipolar disorder | a modd disorder in which the person alternates between hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania |
| hypomania | a mild manic state in which the individual seems infectiously merry, extremely talkative, charming, and tireless |
| mania | a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state, feel invincible without inhibitions |
| mood dysregulation disorder | a new disorder used to replace childhood bipolar disorder. characterized by temper outbursts that occur three or more times per week |
| IS PATH WARM | Ideation, Substance abuse, Purposelessness, Anxiety, Trapped, Hopelessness, Withdrawal, Anger, Recklessness, Mood Change |
| negative cognitive schema | according to Aaron Beck, the core cognitive component of depression, consisting of an individual's automatic negative interpretations concerning himself, his future, and the world |
| explanatory style | a person's habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along three dimensions: (1) internal/external; (2) stable/unstable, (3) global/specific |
| schizophrenia | a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions, loss of contact and break down functions of the mind |
| positive symptom | a more overt symptom, such as a delusion or hallucination, displayed by some people with schizophrenia |
| delusion | a false belief that is maintained despite clear contradictory evidence |
| delusions of reference | the belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual |
| hallucination | false sensory experience, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus |
| disorganized behaviour | the considerable difficulty people with schizophrenia may have completing the tasks of everyday life |
| negative symptom | characterized by decreases and absences in certain normal behaviours, emotions, or drives, such as expressionless face, lack of motivation to engage in activites, reduced speech, lack of social engagement, and inability to experience pleasure |
| catatonic behaviour | a symptom of schizophrenia -- unresponsiveness to environment; may be active resistance, excited motor activity, or complete lack of movement or awareness of environment |
| classical antypsychotics | drugs that block dopamine receptors (ex. thorazine and haldol). These drugs seem to treat many positive symptoms of schizophrenia. |
| amphetamines | drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes |
| dopamine hypothesis | the theory that schizophrenia results from excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine |
| neurodevelopmental disorder | one of the disorders that are first diagnosed in childhood and involve developmental problems in academic, intellectual, and social functioning |
| civil commitment laws | legal processing that determine a person is mentally disordered and may be hospitalized even involuntarily |
| criminal commitment laws | legal procedure by which a person found not guilty of a crime by reason of insanity must be confined in a psychiatric hospital |
| autism spectrum disorder | a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interest and repetitive behvaiours |
| restricted interest | an autism symptom where the individual devotes unusal amount of time and passion to a specific thing |
| attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity (most common in childhood) |
| methlphenidate | enhances the release of dopamine and norepinephrine which activate inhibitory circuits that guard against impulses |
| dissociative identity disorder (DID) | a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and altrnating personalities -- formerly called multiple personality disorder |
| interidentity amnesia | partioning of memory in each of the identities |
| post-traumatic model of DID | etiological model of dissociative identity disorder that assumes the condition begins in childhood as a result of severe physical or sexual abuse |
| sociocognitive model of DID | etiological model of dissociative identity disorder that considers the condition to be the result of learning to enact social roles, though not through conscious deception, but in response to suggestion |
| paranoid personality disorder | type of personality disorder characterized by extreme suspiciousness or mistrust of others |
| schizoid personality disorder | a personality disorder characterized by persistent avoidance of social relationships and little expression of emotion |
| schizotypal personality disorder | a psychological disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behaivour, appearance, and perceptions |
| antisocial personality disorder | a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man exhibits lack of consioence for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist |
| borderline personality disorder | a personality disorder characterized by lack of stability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotin; impulsivity; angry outbursts; intense fear of abandonment; recurring suicidal gestures |
| histrionic personality disorder | a personality disorder characterized by excessive emotionality and preoccupation with being the center of attention; emotional shallowness; overly dramatic behaviour |
| avoidant personality disorder | a personality disorder characterized by consistent discomfort and restraint in social situations, overwhelming feelings of inadequacy, and extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation |
| dependant personality disorder | a prsonality disorder characterized by a pattern of clinging and obedience, fear of separation, and ongoing need to be taken care of |
| narcissistic personality disorder | a personality disorder characterized by exaggerated ideas of self-importance and achievements; preoccupation with fantasies of success; arrogance |
| obsessive-compulsive personality disorder | a personality disorder characterized by preoccupation with orderlineess, perfection, and control |
| cluster A personality disorders (weird) | paranoid, schizoid, schisotypical |
| cluster B personality disorder (wild) | antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic |
| cluster C personlaity disorders (worried) | avoidant, dependent, obessive-compulsive |
| trephination | an ancient operation in which a stone instrument was used to cut away a circular section of the skull, perhaps to treat abnormal behaviour, to allow demons to escape |
| catastrophic event | the hypothesized worst thing that could happen if you encountered your phobia |
| 6 models of psychology | biological, psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, humanistic, systems |
| etiology | study of the causes of disease |
| electic | choosing from various psychological models depending on the client |
| subsyndromal disorder | versious of psychological disorders that don't meet the DSM-5 criteria for diagnosis but may nonetheless cause significant problems |
| rapport | mutual understanding and harmony |
| cultural competence | an understanding of how patient's cultural background shapes his beliefes, values, and expectations for therapy |
| hysteria | nervous condition of uncontrolled laughing and crying usually brought on by unusual emotional stress |
| psychogenic | originating in/created by the mind, pysical symptoms don't make anatomical sense |
| glove anesthesia | state in which people lose all feeling in one hand, as if they were wearing a glove that wiped out all physical symptoms |
| free association | in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and syas whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing |
| psychonanalysis | Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions |
| ego psychology | a school of psychodynamic thought that emphasized the skills andadaptive capacities of the ego |
| interpersonal therapy (IPT) | treatment that strengthens social skills and targets interpersonal problems, conflicts, and life transitions |
| client-centered therapy | a humanistic therapy (carl rogers), in which therapists use technique such as active listening with a genuine, accepting, empathetic environment to facilitate cliten's growth. (also called person-centered therapy) |
| Gestalt therapy | therapy that aims to integrate diffreent and sometimes opposing aspects of personality into a unified sense of self |
| hot seat technique (gestalt) | therapist directly challenges the client |
| empty chair technique (gestalt) | a role-playing intervention in which clients play conflicting parts. This typically consists of clients engaging in an imainary dialogue between different sides of themselves |
| experiential therapy | a therapeutic approach that emphasized the value of the therapist's realness in interacting with family |
| 3 techniques of gestalt terapy | focusing, hot seat technique, empty chair technique |
| in vivo exposure | a behavioural therapy method that consists of direct exposure to a feared or avoided situation or stimulus |
| token economics | a behavioural technique in which desirable behaviours are reinforced with a token, such as a small chip or fake coin, which can be exchanged for privileges |
| contingency management | a form of behaviour therapy in which certain behaviours are reliably followed by well-defined consequences |
| modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour |
| vicarious reinforcement | process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behaviour |
| rational-emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) | a confrontational cognitive therapy (Albert Ellis), that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions |
| negative cognitive triad | negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future |
| cognitive restructuring | a therapeutic approach that teaches clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and predictions that often lead to negative emotions and to replace negative thinking with more realistic positive beliefs |
| cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) | a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behaviour therapy (changing behaviour) |
| third wave therapies | assists clients with accepting and being mindful of and attuned to all aspects of their experience, including thoughts, feelings, memories, and physical sensations |
| acceptance and commitment therapy | a therapeutic approach (third wave therapy) designed to foster nonjudgemental observation of one's own mental processes, not directly modifying thoughts or behaviours |
| telehealth | use of technology to deliver health-related services and information, including telemedicine |
| psychotropic medications | drugs that mainly affect the brain and reduce many symptoms of mental dysfunctioning |
| typical antipsychotics | a class of older drugs to treat schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders primarily by reducing excess levels of dopamine in the brain |
| flat affect | a lack of emotional responsiveness |
| atypical antipsychotics | antipsychotics that target both negative and positive symptoms and do not have signigicant side effects common to older antispychotics |
| deinstitutionalization | moving people with psychological or developmental disabilities from highly structured institutions to home or community-based settings |
| antidepressants | a class of psychotropic medication used for the treatment of dpression |
| selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) | a group of second-generation antidepressant drugs that increase serotonin activity specifically, without affecting other neurotransmitters |
| atypical antidepressants | miscellaneous groups of drugs with antidepressant effects but only mild side effects |
| mood stabilizers | drugs used to control modd swings in patients with bipolar mood disorders |
| anxiolytics | drugs that reduce anxiety |
| benzodiazepines | the most common group of antianxiety drugs (anxiolytic), which induces valium and xanax |
| rebound effect | the tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency following suppression |
| anticonvulsants | drugs used to treat mania and depression |
| tardive diskinesia | a neurological disorder marked by involuntary writhing and tic-like movements of the mount, tongue, face, hands, or feet |
| psychosurgery | surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behaviour |
| lobotomy | a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. the procedure cut the nerves connecting to the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain |
| electroconvulsive therapy (ect) | a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient |
| vagal nerve stimulation | an emerging biomedical treatment for depression that involves electrically stimulating the vagus nerve with a small battery-powered implant |
| deep brain stimulation (DBS) | a treatment procedure for depression in which a pacemaker powers electrodes that have been implanted in Brodmann Area 25, thus stimulating that brain area |
| repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) | rapid pulses of magnetic stimulation from a hand-held coil placed close o the scalp are used to alter neuronal activity in fully away patients |
| regression to the mean | if the first measurement is extreme, second measurement will be closer to the mean |
| empirically supported therapies (ESTs) | treatment whose effects have been validated by controlled experimental research |
| dodo bird verdict | the finding that most forms of therapy are effective and few significant differences exist in the effectiveness among standard therapies |
| therapeutic alliance | a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work togeter constructively to overcome the client's problem |
| eclecticism | in psychotherapy, drawing ideas from two or more systems of therapy instead of committing to just one system |
| a mos-and-match approach to electicism | mix and match different approaches to treat a psychological disorder |
| dialectical behaviour therapy | a form of therapy used to treat borderline personality disorder, includes a mix of approaches |
| matched treatment approach eclecticism | carefully assesses a client and and then selects the best therapy or combination of therapies for that person's presenting complaint sticking with empirically validated treatments |
| cyclothymia | disorder that consists of modd swings from moderate depression to hypomania and lasts for two years or more; mild form of bipolar disorder |
| flynn effect | the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years |
| tricyclics | operate by blocking transporter proteins that reabsorb serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine into the presynaptic neuron after release |
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