labeled because they can be picked up with only one eye. They are also called pictorial cues since distance/depth can be seen in a two-dimensional picture.

monocular cues depend on,

They solely depend on stimuli that reside in the outside world as opposed to the physiological mechanisms of the perceiver

,We judge an object to be further away than another object that blocks it. Cue dominance studies have shown that interposition is likely the strongest distance/depth cue.

When an object of known size casts a smaller (or larger) image on our retina we rightly interpret it as being further away (or closer) and not as shrinking (or enlarging).

Height in the Visual Field

,Same-size objects that are closer to the horizon line are seen as further away than objects further up or down from it

Parallel lines appear to converge to a single point with increasing distance

Combination of linear perspective and relative size. Distant objects appear closer to each other (linear perspective) and smaller (relative size) than near objects.

Aerial (Atmospheric) Perspective,

Distant objects are more blurred and bluish due to greater light scattering from particles between object and observer. Greater detail and truer color is seen when objects close

Darker objects are perceived as further away while brighter objects are seen as closer

,depend on the use of both eyes to add additional information to our perception of distance/depth. They only are operative within about 30 feet of the observer

,Muscles flatten lens for long-distance focusing and allow lens to return to a more spherical shape for short distance focusing. This communicates distance information to the brain

Binocular convergence,

Visual system senses eye muscle strain and uses it as cue to an object's distance

The image on each retina differs. The brain fuses two disparate images together to form one 3D picture.

Apparent velocity of objects to a moving observer is such that objects quickly moving in direction opposite to you are perceived to be closer than objects moving slower

Motion Perspective (or Optic Flow

,Phenomenon of an outward expanding visual field as you move directly toward an object and a contracting visual field as you move away from it

Compression of Texture,

Equally spaced elements that are compressed (seen closer together—on left) signal to the brain that the elements are further away (texture gradient cue), and the altitude of the viewer is lower

• Linear perspective is where parallel lines (like runway edges) appear to converge to a single point • The angle of this convergence is called the splay. • The greater the splay, the lower the altitude. Splay is less at higher altitude.

• Rate at which the edges of textured elements, or discontinuities, flow past us as we move through space. • Edge rate is the ratio of velocity divided by the angular distance between edges • Traffic circle experiment

Flight over finely textured elements produces perception of increase speed (cities farmland with small fields)

flight over coarsely textured elements produces a perception of decreased speed (deserts, large bodies of water)

is an "incorrect perception of visual reality" and tricks you into seeing something that isn't.

occurs in conditions of sparse visual stimuli flying in poor visibility, at night, or over featureless or snow-covered terrain). These conditions create uncertainty for our perceptual system, increasing our visual brain's susceptibility to visual illusio

involve an incorrect perception of two-dimensional line drawings and geometric shapes.

visual perception-(mis-interpretation),

Visual problems due to more than simple physiological limitations

Visual illusions are misperceptions of visual reality and occur in conditions (reduced visibility, featureless terrain, darkness)

Trapezoidal shape of runway helps us judge approach angle

Terrain that slopes down toward the threshold creates a "too low" illusion resulting in a high approach, long landing or go-around

Runway Dimensions,When an object of known size casts a smaller image on our retina, we rightly perceive it as further away not shrinking in size (relative size cue)

When an object of known size casts a smaller image on our retina, we rightly perceive it as further away not shrinking in size (relative size cue)

Larger than accustomed to runway,

gives illusion of being closer and if perceived as lower, a high approach & long landing and/or high flare out & possible stall above runway may result.

smaller than normal runway,

late flare out and hard landing

larger than normal runway

,environment in your peripheral vision will often lead to a high flare out possible stall over the runway

,Refraction and darkening of runway environment in heavy rain creates "Prism Effect" and illusion of being too high • A runway 1 NM away may appear as much 5 ° (500 feet) lower than it really is

At night brighter-than-normal runway lights look clearer, larger and closer and could give illusion of being closer than actual

Runway Lighting 2,Dimmer -than -normal runway lights look darker, smaller and further away and could give illusion of being further away than actual

Dimmer -than -normal runway lights look darker, smaller and further away and could give illusion of being further away than actual(2)

Duck Under Phenomenon,

Occurs when transitioning from IMC to VMC at IFR precision minima (200 ft & ½ SM) • Pilot perceives horizon & end of runway as lower on windshield and nose higher than it should, resulting in lower approach with possible premature hard landing

Occurs at night with little or no surface lights and most pronounced on dark nights (overcast sky +/or no moonlight) • Results in premature ground contact (CFIT) short of runway - deadly!

Upslope runway in black-hole conditions Deadly!,

• A high approach retinal image adds to black-hole effect • Kraft's Boeing instructor pilots conducted entirely visual approaches to upsloping runway in black-hole conditions without aid of ILS or altimeter

• Not zero/zero in SNBLSN • Flight above snow-covered featureless terrain, usually below an overcast cloud layer • Sky and terrain blend imperceptibly into each other -even if visibility good • Zero depth perception

Night-Light Illusions,

• False horizons from lights, clouds or reflections • Ground lights seen as stars and vice-versa

Illusions on the Apron,

• Illusion of reduced taxi speed when checking out in larger aircraft (optic flow) • Illusion of reduced taxi speed at night

,• Believe visual illusions exist and can completely trick you into believing that everything looks fine that is why they are called illusion • Recognize we are all subject to illusions even the most experienced pilot • Understand the nature of these il

Determine if airport is conducive to illusions Check Flight Supplement, NOTAMS, other pilots, etc., to ascertain presence of irregular-shaped or sloped runways or terrain, or runways conducive to blackhole conditions

Get Familiar with Airport/Runway,

• Get instruction at airports conducive to illusions • Avoid long straight-in approaches especially at night—almost always result in premature decent

Be Careful During Ground Operations,

• Avoid staring at yellow taxiway line or green taxiway centerline—look out side-window to see more-distant objects (light posts, buildings, etc.) to better judge speed • Use an airport taxi diagram .• Request progressive taxi instructions if unfamiliar

Sit In The Correct Position

,• A single reference point in space selected by aircraft designer where midpoint between pilot's eyes assumed to be located when the pilot is properly seated at pilot's station. • The seat adjustment that places a pilot's eyes at the DERP provides not o

(Design eye position (DEP) or Design-eye reference point (DERP)),

• Transport aircraft have fixed eye position indicators located at eyelevel above center glare shield that can be used to adjust the captain's and FO's seats for the proper DERP (DEP). • Place head in the normal position while adjusting your seat until t

• Use Glide Path Instruments and Technologies

,• Glide path information such as an ILS or DME/Altimeter • A 3° glide slope can be flown by maintaining 300 feet AGL per 1 NM from threshold • For added safety at night in light prop aircraft, descend at 400 or 500 feet per NM for a 4° or 5° slope res

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Question	Answer
monocular cues,	labeled because they can be picked up with only one eye. They are also called pictorial cues since distance/depth can be seen in a two-dimensional picture.
monocular cues depend on,	They solely depend on stimuli that reside in the outside world as opposed to the physiological mechanisms of the perceiver
Interposition	,We judge an object to be further away than another object that blocks it. Cue dominance studies have shown that interposition is likely the strongest distance/depth cue.
Relative Size,	When an object of known size casts a smaller (or larger) image on our retina we rightly interpret it as being further away (or closer) and not as shrinking (or enlarging).
Height in the Visual Field	,Same-size objects that are closer to the horizon line are seen as further away than objects further up or down from it
Linear Perspective,	Parallel lines appear to converge to a single point with increasing distance
Texture Gradient,	Combination of linear perspective and relative size. Distant objects appear closer to each other (linear perspective) and smaller (relative size) than near objects.
Aerial (Atmospheric) Perspective,	Distant objects are more blurred and bluish due to greater light scattering from particles between object and observer. Greater detail and truer color is seen when objects close
Relative Brightness,	Darker objects are perceived as further away while brighter objects are seen as closer
Binocular cues	,depend on the use of both eyes to add additional information to our perception of distance/depth. They only are operative within about 30 feet of the observer
Accommodation	,Muscles flatten lens for long-distance focusing and allow lens to return to a more spherical shape for short distance focusing. This communicates distance information to the brain
Binocular convergence,	Visual system senses eye muscle strain and uses it as cue to an object's distance
Retinal Disparity,	The image on each retina differs. The brain fuses two disparate images together to form one 3D picture.
Motion Parallax,	Apparent velocity of objects to a moving observer is such that objects quickly moving in direction opposite to you are perceived to be closer than objects moving slower
Motion Perspective (or Optic Flow	,Phenomenon of an outward expanding visual field as you move directly toward an object and a contracting visual field as you move away from it
Compression of Texture,	Equally spaced elements that are compressed (seen closer together—on left) signal to the brain that the elements are further away (texture gradient cue), and the altitude of the viewer is lower
Splay,.	• Linear perspective is where parallel lines (like runway edges) appear to converge to a single point • The angle of this convergence is called the splay. • The greater the splay, the lower the altitude. Splay is less at higher altitude.
Edge Rate,	• Rate at which the edges of textured elements, or discontinuities, flow past us as we move through space. • Edge rate is the ratio of velocity divided by the angular distance between edges • Traffic circle experiment
high edge rate,	Flight over finely textured elements produces perception of increase speed (cities farmland with small fields)
low edge rate,	flight over coarsely textured elements produces a perception of decreased speed (deserts, large bodies of water)
visual illusion,	is an "incorrect perception of visual reality" and tricks you into seeing something that isn't.
Visual ambiguity,	occurs in conditions of sparse visual stimuli flying in poor visibility, at night, or over featureless or snow-covered terrain). These conditions create uncertainty for our perceptual system, increasing our visual brain's susceptibility to visual illusio
Geometric illusions,	involve an incorrect perception of two-dimensional line drawings and geometric shapes.
visual perception-(mis-interpretation),	Visual problems due to more than simple physiological limitations
visual ambiguity,	Visual illusions are misperceptions of visual reality and occur in conditions (reduced visibility, featureless terrain, darkness)
Sloping Runways,	Trapezoidal shape of runway helps us judge approach angle
Sloping Terrain,	Terrain that slopes down toward the threshold creates a "too low" illusion resulting in a high approach, long landing or go-around
Runway Dimensions,When an object of known size casts a smaller image on our retina, we rightly perceive it as further away not shrinking in size (relative size cue)	When an object of known size casts a smaller image on our retina, we rightly perceive it as further away not shrinking in size (relative size cue)
Larger than accustomed to runway,	gives illusion of being closer and if perceived as lower, a high approach & long landing and/or high flare out & possible stall above runway may result.
smaller than normal runway,	late flare out and hard landing
larger than normal runway	,environment in your peripheral vision will often lead to a high flare out possible stall over the runway
Rain on Windscreen	,Refraction and darkening of runway environment in heavy rain creates "Prism Effect" and illusion of being too high • A runway 1 NM away may appear as much 5 ° (500 feet) lower than it really is
Runway Lighting,	At night brighter-than-normal runway lights look clearer, larger and closer and could give illusion of being closer than actual
Runway Lighting 2,Dimmer -than -normal runway lights look darker, smaller and further away and could give illusion of being further away than actual	Dimmer -than -normal runway lights look darker, smaller and further away and could give illusion of being further away than actual(2)
Duck Under Phenomenon,	Occurs when transitioning from IMC to VMC at IFR precision minima (200 ft & ½ SM) • Pilot perceives horizon & end of runway as lower on windshield and nose higher than it should, resulting in lower approach with possible premature hard landing
Black Hole Approach,	Occurs at night with little or no surface lights and most pronounced on dark nights (overcast sky +/or no moonlight) • Results in premature ground contact (CFIT) short of runway - deadly!
Upslope runway in black-hole conditions Deadly!,	• A high approach retinal image adds to black-hole effect • Kraft's Boeing instructor pilots conducted entirely visual approaches to upsloping runway in black-hole conditions without aid of ILS or altimeter
Flat Light,	• Not zero/zero in SNBLSN • Flight above snow-covered featureless terrain, usually below an overcast cloud layer • Sky and terrain blend imperceptibly into each other -even if visibility good • Zero depth perception
Night-Light Illusions,	• False horizons from lights, clouds or reflections • Ground lights seen as stars and vice-versa
Illusions on the Apron,	• Illusion of reduced taxi speed when checking out in larger aircraft (optic flow) • Illusion of reduced taxi speed at night
believe	,• Believe visual illusions exist and can completely trick you into believing that everything looks fine that is why they are called illusion • Recognize we are all subject to illusions even the most experienced pilot • Understand the nature of these il
Prepare Beforehand,	Determine if airport is conducive to illusions Check Flight Supplement, NOTAMS, other pilots, etc., to ascertain presence of irregular-shaped or sloped runways or terrain, or runways conducive to blackhole conditions
Get Familiar with Airport/Runway,	• Get instruction at airports conducive to illusions • Avoid long straight-in approaches especially at night—almost always result in premature decent
Be Careful During Ground Operations,	• Avoid staring at yellow taxiway line or green taxiway centerline—look out side-window to see more-distant objects (light posts, buildings, etc.) to better judge speed • Use an airport taxi diagram .• Request progressive taxi instructions if unfamiliar
Sit In The Correct Position	,• A single reference point in space selected by aircraft designer where midpoint between pilot's eyes assumed to be located when the pilot is properly seated at pilot's station. • The seat adjustment that places a pilot's eyes at the DERP provides not o
(Design eye position (DEP) or Design-eye reference point (DERP)),	• Transport aircraft have fixed eye position indicators located at eyelevel above center glare shield that can be used to adjust the captain's and FO's seats for the proper DERP (DEP). • Place head in the normal position while adjusting your seat until t
• a 300, 400, or 500 feet per minute descent at 60-knot groundspeed yields a 3°, 4° or 5° glide slope
Supplement Visual References in Flat Light,• Turn around using flight instruments to gain adequate ground references before continuing VFR
• Use flight instruments until outside visual references clearly discernible
• Visual approaches in these conditions require specialized training and extreme caution
Seeing IS Deceiving,•Visual illusions have duped too many pilots
•Learn all you can about them and the steps necessary to correct for them, and you will keep yourself from being fooled
Ground Operations,• getting "lost" easier at unfamiliar airport
• "sea-of-blue" effect
Takeoff & Climb Takeoff into "Black Hole",• No lights ahead of you
• Dark night conditions: no ground lights and lack of moonlight or starlight to illuminate the surface
• 78% of fatal night takeoff accidents in Canada occurred on "dark nights
Somatogravic Illusion,• Illusion of pitching up when accelerating in poor visibility, IMC, or in black hole.
• Push forward on the controls as a result
• Claimed many lives after takeoff or a goaround into "black hole" in dark-night conditions
Risk =,Probability x Consequences
Communication,The transfer of information between people using speech, written words, body language, or other means
Readback/Hearback Problem,Controller: "descend seven five zero zero feet" (7,500 feet). Captain and FO in near-CFIT incident read back "five zero zero zero feet" (5,000 feet).
Crew read-back was incorrect, and controller's hearback was also incorrect
Cocktail Party Effect,• The breaking through of unattended salient, pertinent or novel stimuli into your conscious perception
• You are talking to at a cocktail party
• You perceive your name being spoken by someone else in another group that you are not paying attention to
Cocktail Party Effect examples,• ATC radio calls that include our aircraft's call sign
• Flight deck warning signals (e.g., marker beacons, landing gear or altitude deviation horns, master caution lights, etc.)
Mental Workload,Limits to how much physical workload the body can endure and limits to how much mental workload the mind can sustain before performance suffers.
Multitasking,accomplishing two different tasks simultaneously is as effective as doing them separately—is a myth.
• Either or both tasks suffer because multiple tasks are usually not accomplished in parallel, but sequentially (in series), with an individual's attention switching rapidly back-and-forth between them
Mental Workload—Attention Switching,• Performance is worse when performing two different tasks that draw upon same regions of the brain using the same sensory modality (e.g., simultaneously attempting two visual tasks or two auditory tasks)
• Improvement occurs when executing two unrelated tasks that use two different modalities that draw from different regions of the brain (e.g., visually scanning flight instruments and listening to a radio broadcast). But performance still suffers! Just no
Yerkes-Dodson Law,Performance of complex, unfamiliar, or difficult tasks best at moderate levels of mental workload Too low or high and performance suffers
Situational Awareness,• "Awareness" of the "situation"
• Knowing what's going on with your aircraft, yourself and the environment
• An accurate perception of what has happened, what is happening, and what will happen
Situational Awareness (SA),• SA involves attention and vigilance, mental workload, memory, etc.,
• SA encompasses higher -order thinking strategies such as anticipating changes, generating and evaluating options, and managing risk
• SA is overall mindset flight crews should attain and maintain to achieve safe flight operations
Level 1 SA,Attending to relevant elements within your environment to attain awareness of:
• Outside environment (terrain, airspace, airport, Wx),
• Status of the aircraft (performance, energy state, systems, fuel)
• Personal state of being (physiological, psychological, and psychosocial condition)
Level 2 SA,Comprehending current situation by understanding what those environmental elements mean in the context of your goals
`In Level 1 SA, you perceive another aircraft flying in your vicinity. In Level 2 SA you need to know what the presence of that aircraft means. Is it on a collision course with your aircraft or is it not?
Level 3 SA,Accurate perception of what has happened in the past and what is happening in the present to project the near-future status of the flight
• Use Glide Path Instruments and Technologies	,• Glide path information such as an ILS or DME/Altimeter • A 3° glide slope can be flown by maintaining 300 feet AGL per 1 NM from threshold • For added safety at night in light prop aircraft, descend at 400 or 500 feet per NM for a 4° or 5° slope res
You determine a mid-air collision will occur within a certain time frame if either your aircraft or the other does not change its heading
Four SA Elements,Geographical SA
Spatial/Temporal SA
Environmental SA
Aircraft systems SA
Geographical SA,aircraft position relative to navigation waypoints; location of other aircraft in vicinity; terrain features (high terrain, sparsely settles area, open ocean); location of regulatory airspace, airways and airports; taxiway and runway assig
Spatial/Temporal SA,aircraft attitude, altitude, airspeed, heading, course; projected flight path and time of landing; changes in flight plan route and/or clearances.
Environmental SA,reported and forecast weather conditions at current location and destination (winds, visibility, ceiling, airframe icing, turbulence); runway conditions (length, crosswind, tailwind, contaminated runway
Aircraft systems SA—,information from flight instrument and aircraft systems displays; configuration settings (flaps, gear); communication and navigation radio settings; automation modes; fuel status and projected fuel available.
Improving Attention,• Overlearn Tasks
• Use Other Sensory Modalities During High Workload Periods • The Pilot Monitoring Should Effectively Monitor the Pilot Flying
• Mentally Fly the Aircraft When the Other Pilot or Autopilot is Flying It
• Effectively Manage the Aircraft Flight Path During Critical Phases of Flight
• Minimize Interruptions and Distractions • Manage the Unexpected, Don't Let the Unexpected Manage You
• Maintain a Sterile Flight Deck
Why study flight deck design?,• Poor flight deck design has led to accidents
• Remember? 400 airplanes lost in 22-month period in WWII because pilots confused landing gear and flap controls
• B-737 MAX • Poor design also requires extensive operator training
Shape Coding,• Throttle—black, wheel
• RPM—gear/prop shape
• Mixture—red, drum shaped
• Flap—flap (airfoil) shaped
• Landing gear—round wheel/tire
• Carb heat—black box
Color coding,• Safe airspeeds = green-colored arc.
• Speeds to be used with caution = yellow-colored arc
• Speed that should never be exceeded = red-colored line
Location Coding,Placing of displays and controls to best meet processing needs of the human operator
Analog displays,present qualitative, continuous information that represents the state of an aircraft attribute in symbolic or pictorial format, often with a moving indicator
Digital displays,present quantitative, discrete numeric information that is helpful in determining precise values, and usually involves less mental effort and fewer mental computations to interpret exact values. • Harder to see rates than
Standardization,• Similarity of coding (color, shape, etc.) between models and types • Similarity of layout (the standard six pack)
• Similarity of operating principles (switch is selected up for ON, dial turned clockwise to increase, etc.)
Negative transfer of training (transfer of learning) occurs when not standard
• e.g., landing gear control
Outside-,less subject to error, yet with Inside-Out AI pilots mentally see it as porthole in the nose of the aircraft— what you see through the porthole is what it looks like outside.
Western -style (inside -out),Captain experienced SD caused by lack of proficiency and insufficient training in determining roll upset directions during transition training in the electronic attitude director indicator.
Automation,The accomplishment of a task by a machine instead of a human
What are its benefits?
• Relieves fatigue—can fly without having to physically manipulate flight controls
• Allocate limited attentional resources for other aspects of a flight
• Supplies greater geographic position awareness (MFDs)
Automation 2,• Traffic warnings: Airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS), traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS)
• Terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS), ground proximity warning system (GPWS)
• Increased engine life through full authority digital engine control systems (FADEC)
• Flight envelope protection (airspeed, altitude, and load factor). Fly-by-wire technology makes this possible.
Dumb and Dutiful GIGO (Garbage In-Garbage Out),• A320 CFIT 10 miles from StrasbourgEntzheim airport, France, killing all but seven of the 96 aboard. No GPWS installed
Finger Trouble,Indian Airlines 605 crashed short of 09 at Bangalore Airport, 1990. CA selected Altitude knob when he intended to select 700 fpm descent using the Vertical Speed knob
FAA warns about inadvertent selection errors using concentrically -centered knobs responsible for selecting more than one mode (bi - and multi -modal knobs).
Mode Error/Confusion,A lack of understanding or awareness by flight crews of what particular mode the AFCS is operating in, and/or in how such systems operate
Automation Surprise,• American Eagle 3008, roll upset & loss of control after AP disengaged in icing (recovered by 6,500ft)
• China Airlines 140, 1994, Airbus A300 lost control on approach because of inadvertent go - around. Pilots fighting A/P (264 died)
Automation Complacency,Overreliance on the automation to safely fly A/C
Automation Paradox,AFCSs reduce physical and mental workload, but only in low -workload periods such as during cruise flight.
• In high-workload periods (approach), it increases overall workload —an automation paradox —especially if other circumstances (last -minute changes, systems anomalies) add to workload
• Complex automation systems themselves often demand additional mental resources during already high workload periods
Automation Addiction,• FAA estimates it is used 90% of the time in commercial flight • Study of 30 U.S. airline pilots tested manual (hand -flying) skills to ATP standards Level D simulator:
• Mean scores 3.2 (takeoffs), 2.4 (holds), 2.9 (ILS approaches) —a pass is a 4 or 5!
• Asiana 214, B -777, SFO, seawall. CA elected to use A/P because PF "lacked critical manual flying skills"
cami,Confirm,
Activate,
Monitor,
intervene
Manual Flying,FAA's Safety Alerts for Operators 13002, Manual Flight Operations
Recommends airlines and other operators promote manual flight operations during training (initial, upgrade, and recurrent) and when flying on the line. It encourages practice of hand-flying during low workload conditions (cruise)
Qualification, Service and Use of Crewmembers and Aircraft Dispatchers, 2019
U.S. airlines required to train and evaluate pilots on "their ability to manually fly a departure sequence and arrival into an airport" and to prevent and recover from an aircraft upset (e.g., stall) using manual handling skills
Memory,Memory is the process by which information is stored in our brain
Most mental operations— perception, attention, problem solving and decision making—are dependent upon it.
Retrospective memory,involves recollecting past information (semantic, episodic, procedural)
Prospective memory i,involves remembering to perform an intended action in the future
• forgetting to level off at correct altitude, change to tower frequency to obtain landing clearance, set altimeter to or from 29.92 in Hg
• 1,299 ASRS reports, 75 described memory failures made by pilots, but only 1 involved retrospective memory failure—vast majority were prospective memory failures
Major Factors That contribute to Forgetting,• Deferred Tasks
• Distractions
• Time Pressure
• Task Overload/Stress
Deferred Tasks,The time at which a deferred task must be recalled often occurs when crew is performing other demanding cognitive tasks, preventing rehearsal of the information held in working memory
• Distractions,lead to forgetting critical items
Time Pressure,On-time departure and arrival performance is a major goal of every airline and pilot
Task Overload/Stress,Non-normal/emergency events on flight deck create significant levels of situational (short-term) stress, which impairs variety of cognitive abilities including memory retrieval
Improving Memory,• Utilize Chunking
• Use Mnemonics
• Use Checklists
• Verbalize the Important Stuff
• Manage Interruptions & Distractions
• Avoid the Rush • Effectively Manage Situational Stress
Utilize Chunking,Grouping bits of information (chunking) into meaningful wholes enhances learning and memory
Use Mnemonics,Recall memory involves direct information retrieval from long -term memory
• Recognition memory involves choosing options from a list (e.g., true/false or multiple -choice questions) —like a checklist
• Less cognitive effort required using recognition memory compared to recall memory —knowledge in the world!
Use Checklist,• Humans rely on "knowledge in the world" in addition to "knowledge in the head" to ease the burden of remembering things. Can you think of everyday examples?
Verbalize the Important Stuff,reduces the chance of forgetting something
• Manage Interruptions & Distractions,• Create your own "reminder cues" if distracted away from a checklist
Avoid the Rush,Buy more time if you feel pressured to rush:
• slow down
• request a hold
• conduct a go-around
• request a different clearance
Effectively Manage Situational Stress,• Focus energy on resolving the problem, not on the consequences should you be unable to
descriptive model,a model that describes what people actually do reason in decision making
Heuristics,are rule-of-thumb strategies that can be applied easily in a wide variety of situations and that often lead to reasonable decisions
Escalation/Entrapment Bias,• Occurs when we have too much invested to quit even in face of poor weather • Student out of gas story
• One of many unconscious factors that contribute to gethome-itis
• Attempted VFR-into-IMC flight remains the number one cause of fatal GA weather-related accidents in the United States and Canada.
• Majority of VFR-into-IMC accidents occur on last leg of return trip because desire to get home overrides ability to make a sound go/no-go decision--last leg syndrome!
Belief Perseverance,We think our beliefs are true even in the face of clear evidence that discredits them
Optimistic & Ability Biases,Most pilots believe they have a lower-thanaverage chance of experiencing an aircraft accident (optimistic bias), and believe they possess greater than average piloting ability which will help them to avoid such an accident (abi
Overconfidence,Researchers have found that people are almost always more confident of the correctness of their answers than they are truly correct
Hindsight Bias,• When you read the results of accident reports, they seem obvious and not surprising. However, it is often only because of your after-the-fact knowledge of the outcome that you feel that way
Biases Good for Health?,• Although ability and optimistic biases may cause our thinking to be somewhat unrealistic, they seem to be very good for both our mental and physical well-being
AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING (ADM),is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances
JUDGMENT,is the mental process of recognizing and analyzing all pertinent information in a particular situation, a rational evaluation of alternative actions in response to it, and a timely decision on which action to take
Anti -Authority,"Don't tell me"
Macho,i can do it
resignation,reluctant acceptance of a bad situation
invulnerability,an illusion that breeds excessive optimism and risk taking
impulsive,Acting or done without forethought
Making Better Decisions,• Increase Your Expertise and Maintain Proficiency
• Comply with SOPs
• Improve Your Situation Assessment
• Practice CRM and SRM Skills • Manage Stress
• Minimize Bias
Increase Your Expertise and Maintain Proficiency,•Be an "expert" pilot
•Learn everything you can about your craft (aircraft systems, performance, aerodynamics, abnormal/emergency procedures, you name it)
•Leave no stone unturned in your learning •Remember Captain "Sully" Sullenberger
Comply with SOPs,written and tested best practice procedures that are applied uniformly and consistently to all aspects of flight operations, including normal, non-normal (abnormal), and emergency operations
Improve Your Situation Assessment,• Accurate assessment needed for best decisions
• Avoid impulsivity in emergency or abnormal situations
• "Wind the figurative clock" if you feel you have to do something
• Most in-flight challenges can be resolved with a checklist or SOP
• Practice CRM or SRM skills
Practice CRM and SRM Skills,CRM and SRM involve using all available resources—people, information, and equipment—to achieve safe and efficient flight operations
Manage Stress,• Devote energy to solving whatever problem is you are facing—don't think of negative consequences if you can't resolve
minimize bias,• When you feel the pressure to continue a course of action, step back and ask yourself if biases are affecting your judgment

Created by: desmond1

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