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BIOCHEM_METABOLISM
BIOCHEM_FINALS
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| The entire set of metabolic reactions is organized into smaller sets of sequential reactions called | metabolic pathways. |
| The species produced in the various reactions of a metabolic pathway are sometimes referred to as | metabolites. |
| 2 types of metabolism | Anabolism & Catabolism |
| involves building up of smaller organic compounds to form larger ones and usually requires energy | Anabolism |
| involves the breakdown of larger organic compounds into smaller compounds and usually releases energy | Catabolism |
| example of anabolism | protein synthesis, from nucleic acids to amino acids to protein |
| example of catabolism | carbohydrates digestion, from starch to polysaccharide to maltose and dextrin to glucose |
| 2 sites of metabolism | Anaerobic Metabolism & Aerobic Metabolism |
| Anaerobic metabolism ________ oxygen | does not require |
| Anaerobic metabolism occurs in | cytoplasm |
| Aerobic metabolism ________ oxygen | requires |
| Aerobic metabolism occurs in | mitochondria |
| 3 types of metabolic pathways | Linear, Circular, Spiral |
| A type of metabolic pathway where a series of reactions are not repeated. | linear |
| A type of metabolic pathway where a series of reactions are repeated and in which the final product is also an initial reactant. | circular |
| A type of metabolic pathway where a series of repeated reactions is used to break down (or build up) a compound. | spiral |
| are species that bind to an enzyme in order for an enzyme to be activated or function | coenzymes |
| is one of the substrates (reactants) in the catalyzed reaction | coenzymes |
| if the coenzyme is adp/atp, what species is transferred | phosphoryl group |
| if the coenzyme is nad+/nadh and fad/fadh2, what species is transferred | hydride ion or electrons |
| if the coenzyme is coenzyme A, what species is transferred | acyl group |
| if the coenzyme is coenzyme Q, what species is transferred | hydride ion or electrons |
| From ADP to ATP | adding a phosphate group requires energy |
| From ATP to ADP | removal of phosphate group releases energy |
| Electron transfer in the biochemical reactions happens in | redox reactions |
| gain of electron – when a hydride ion (H-) forms a bond in an organic molecule | Reduction reaction |
| loss of electron – when a hydride ion (H-) or hydrogen ion (H+) ion is removed from an organic molecule | Oxidation reaction |
| NAD full name | Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide |
| The reduction reaction of NAD+ & FAD_________energy | requires |
| The oxidation reaction of NAD+ & FAD_________energy | releases |
| FAD full name | Flavin adenine dinucleotide |
| a derivative of the vitamin B pantothenic acid | Coenzyme A |
| active form of coenzyme A is the | sulfhydryl group (-SH group) |
| acetyl groups are donated and accepted by | coenzyme A |
| general stages of catabolism | Stage 1: Digestion Stage 2: The formation of Acetyl group Stage 3: Citric acid cycle Stage 4: Electron transport chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation |
| is the process in which the body breaks down carbohydrate, protein, and triglyceride polymers | Digestion |
| During digestion, carbohydrates are broken down to | polysaccharides to monosaccharides |
| Almost 50% of our dietary carbohydrates are in the form of | starch. |
| Starch has two components | amylose and amylopectin |
| Digestion begins in the | mouth |
| breaks down starch to catalyze the hydrolysis of amylose and amylopectin to form maltose (an α-(1⟶4) glucose-glucose disaccharide) and small oligosaccharides called dextrins | Salivary amylase |
| why is there no digestion in stomach | stomach is very high in acidity and denatures salivary amylase. |
| why is it important for oligosaccharides and polysaccharides be converted to monosaccharides? | for the sugars to pass through the intestine wall and into the bloodstream so that they are available to cells |
| Monosaccharides are transported into the cells by | passive diffusion through transmembrane proteins. |
| Not all carbohydrates can be digested by the body. | cellulose cannot |
| catalyzes the hydrolysis of dextrins to form maltose and isomaltose | Pancreatic Amylase |
| catalyzes maltose to glucose | Maltase |
| catalyzes isomaltase to glucose | Isomaltase |
| catalyzes lactose to glucose and galactose | Lactase |
| catalyzes sucrose to glucose and fructose | Sucrase |
| In stage 2 of carbohydrate catabolism, glucose is converted into | acetyl-coenzyme A, CO2, and H2O. |
| Glycolysis is also called | Embden-Meyerhof Pathway |
| is a series of ten sequentialreactions that ultimately converts one glucose molecule to two pyruvate ions and two H2O molecules. | Glycolysis |
| The ten reactions of glycolysis result in a net gain of | two ATP and two NADH |
| Other monosaccharides can be catabolized if they are converted to intermediates in the | glycolysis pathway |
| In this condition, the pyruvate that is made in glycolysis remains in the cytoplasm and is converted (reduced) to lactate | Anaerobic Condition |
| The lactate produced from anaerobic condition is released by the muscle to the circulatory system and taken up by the | liver |
| In the liver, lactate is converted back to pyruvate then to glucose for future use. This series of chemical reaction is called | gluconeogenesis |
| is an anabolic metabolism where non-carbohydrate species (pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, certain amino acids) are converted to glucose. | Gluconeogenesis |
| where does Gluconeogenesis occur? | liver |
| Gluconeogenesis helps maintain | normal blood-glucose levels |
| When dietary intake of glucose exceeds immediate needs, humans and other animals can convert the excess to | glycogen |
| the process of converting excess glucose to glycogen | Glycogenesis |
| the process of hydrolyzing glycogen to glucose | Glycogenolysis |
| In this condition, pyruvate passes from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria and is then converted to acetyl-coenzyme A and CO2 | Aerobic condition |
| is the removal of carboxylate ion producing CO2 | Decarboxylation |
| Energy released by the oxidation of pyruvate is transferred to | NADH |
| under aerobic conditions, one glucose molecule has produced two acetyl-coenzyme A ions and provided the energy for the formation of | four NADH and two ATP |
| Citric acid cycle is also known as | Kreb’s Cycle |
| It is the final stage of breakdown carbohydrates | Citric acid cycle |
| In the first reaction, acetylcoenzyme-A (acetyl-CoA) reacts with | oxaloacetate |
| In the citric acid cycle, oxaloacetate isnot only a reactant in the first reaction; it is also the | product of the last reaction |
| This stage requires that NADH be located within the mitochondrial matrix. | Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation |
| works by oxidizing the NADH to NAD+ in the intermembrane space, then transferring the electrons through the inner mitochondrial matrix | Malate-Aspartate Shuttle |
| NADH is oxidized in the intermembrane space by transferring electrons to an inner mitochondrial membrane-bound FAD, | Glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle, |
| is the process in which electrons from NADH or FADH2 are transferred, through a series of electron transfer intermediates, | Oxidative phosphorylation |
| Oxidative phosphorylation is made up of two closely connected components | the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis |
| The energy released by the process of transfer of electrons is used by the | protein complexes |
| where are protein complexes found | inner mitochondrial membrane |
| function of protein complexes | move hydrogen ions from a region of lower hydrogen ion concentration (the mitochondrial matrix) to a region of higher hydrogen ion concentration (the intermembrane space). |
| is an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction that synthesizes or produces ATP. | ATP synthase |
| ATP synthase also plays a role in delivering the energy needed to make ATP synthesis occur | spontaneously (this time from higher hydrogen ion concentration to lower hydrogen ion concentration). |
| The protons from the intermembrane space returns to the mitochondrial matrix through the | ATP synthase |
| Phosphate is added from ADP to produce ATP | phosphorylation. |
| Normal range of glucose concentration in the blood is about | 80 to 110 mg per dL of blood. |
| higher than normal blood glucose concentration | hyperglycemia |
| blood glucose levels fall below the normal range | hypoglycemia |
| Triglyceride Digestion begins in the mouth with the help of the enzyme | lingual lipase |
| Majority of dietary triglycerides are digested in the | small intestine |
| Large globules formed in the mouth and stomach are emulsified by | bile salts |
| Emulsification allows________to catalyze the partial hydrolysis of emulsified triglycerides and diglycerides | pancreatic lipase |
| products of emulsification | fatty acids and monoglycerides. |
| the triglycerides must be emulsified in order to be transported throughout the body. This is done by | chylomicrons |
| are small lipoproteins that are composed of a core that contains emulsified triglycerides | chylomicrons |
| major repository for triglycerides; | Adipose (fat) cells |
| function of Adipose (fat) cells | store triglycerides |
| When body is in fasting or exercise, lipids mobilizes energy production through | lipolysis |
| hydrolysis of triglyceride to fatty acids and glycerol | lipolysis |
| is necessary for the acyl group from fatty acids to pass through the inner mitochondrial membrane and enter the matrix, | activation reaction |
| After the Acetyl-CoA’s are produced, these now enters the | Kreb’s cycle |
| occurs when large quantities of triglycerides are catabolized producing large amount of Acetyl-CoA that enters the Citric Acid Cycle. | Ketogenesis |
| acetyl-CoA reacts with other acetyl-CoA to produce | ketone bodies |
| When blood pH is less than the normal range the condition is called | acidosis |
| When acidosis is caused by excess ketone bodies, the condition is called | ketoacidosis |
| Fatty acids are produced by a spiral metabolic pathway that operates in the opposite direction | Lipogenesis |
| The body can synthesize almost all the fatty acids it needs except for | linoleic and linolenic acid. |
| Linoleic and linolenic acid can only be obtained through | dietary triglycerides |
| Linoleic and linolenic acid are classified as | essential fatty acids |
| In stage 1 of protein metabolism, dietary proteins are converted into | amino acids |
| Proteins are converted to amino acids by | hydrolysis of peptide bonds. |
| Protein digestion starts in the | stomach |
| In the stomach, an acidic environment and ___________catalyze the hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids and oligopeptides. | proteolytic enzymes (primarily pepsin) |
| In the small intestine, unhydrolyzed oligopeptides are further broken down to amino acids through enzyme | peptidases |
| involves the transfer of a quaternary ammonium group (NH3+) that is bound to the α-carbon of an amino acid is transferred to an αketo acid. | Transamination |
| involves the removal of a quaternary ammonium group (NH3+) | Oxidative Deamination |
| Humans and most other terrestrial vertebrates can convert the ammonium ions to | urea. |
| This occurs in a series of reactions called the | urea cycle |
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