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| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| - What is the most and least common way for protein compounds to be absorbed, as whole proteins, peptides or amino acids? | o Most common way is absorbed as peptides o Least common way is whole proteins |
| - What is a zymogen? What is its purpose? | o Zymogen: inactive pre-enzyme; is a pancreatic enzyme o Purpose: Prevents self-digestion |
| - How does HCl aid in protein digestion? | o Helps in post-ruminal protein digestion o Converts Pepsinogen to Pepsin |
| - Where are proteolytic enzymes secreted from in the small intestine? | o Brush Border |
| - Where does proteolytic activity start in the ruminant intestine? Duodenum, jejunum, or Ileum? | o Mid-jejunum |
| - Where in the small intestine does most proteolytic activity occur, near the brush border or in the center? | o Near the brush border rather than on the inside of the rumen |
| - What is the difference between an endopeptidase and an exopeptidase? | o Endopeptidase: Inside amino acid structure o Exopeptidase: Activity of amino acid on peptide chain |
| - How are intact proteins absorbed through the intestinal wall? | o Newborns: Through immunoglobulins (passive immunity) o Adults: Paracellular routes between enterocytes or intracellular routes (ex: endocytosis and pinocytosis) |
| - How are peptides and amino acids absorbed through the intestinal wall? | o Peptides: Mid jejunum to lower ileum, Active transport(energy required) o Amino acids: carrier systems like active transport |
| - How are protein compounds absorbed out of the enterocyte into blood? | o Amino acids diffuse across the basolateral membrane o Enterocytes to portal blood to liver to circulation to tissues |
| - Where is the concentration of peptide and amino acid transporters in the small intestine the greatest? | o Proximal small intestine and decreases as you go towards the distal ileum |
| - Enterocytes use much of the absorbed amino acids themselves. What do they use them for? | o The first cells that use the amino acids Transport into portal blood Protein synthesis • Digestive enzymes • Structure and growth Energy |
| - What happens to amino acids once they enter the liver? | o There is synthesis of non-essential amino acids o There is synthesis of proteins o The absorbed amino acids become metabolized |
| - What types of proteins does the body need amino acids for? | o Structural proteins (muscle, collagen) o Globular proteins (enzymes) o Immune proteins o Exportable/secreted proteins (milk, hair) |
| - What are 2 main ways that protein deposition can occur? How do steroids increase deposition? Beta agonists? | o 2 main ways that protein deposition occur: changes in synthesis and degradation |
| - Which organ is the most rapidly turning over organ in the body? | o Small intestine |
| - Why do body organs turn over protein? | o Remove abnormal proteins o Restructure cells and tissues o Coordinate whole body changes |
| - What are 4 primary sources of lipids for ruminants? | o Feeds o Diet supplementation o Microbes synthesize lipids o De novo synthesis |
| - What are 4 types of general methods to add fat to the diet? | o Forages meaning stems and leaves (1-4%), corn (about 4%) and added fat (3-4%) |
| - What are some benefits (8) of adding fat to ruminant diets? | o Increase energy density o Increase dietary energy without decreasing forage level o Increase energy without increasing heat of fermentation o Change nutrient profile of products o Health benefits o Decrease dustiness o Improve reproduction Decrea |
| - Why is it recommended not to exceed 8% of the total diet as fat/oil? | o Interferes with rumen fermentation o The ruminant digestive system can’t handle that much fat because they evolved on non-forage diet |
| - What are some detrimental effects of fat and inhibited fiber digestion on the animal? | o Interferes with rumen fermentation (physically coats fiber, toxic effect on microbes, decreased cation availability, decreased intake) |
| - What are 3 major chemical forms of lipids in the diet? | o Seeds (cereal grains)- triacylglycerol o Forages- galactolipids o Forages and grains- phospholipids (come from microbes) |
| - What are 5 ways fatty acids are classified? | o Chain length o Linkages o Hydrogenation o Conjugation o Optical isomers |
| - Know the difference between VFA, SCFA, MCFA, and LCFA | o VFA: Volatile Fatty Acid (C1-C6) o SCFA: Short Chain Fatty Acid (C1-C8) o MCFA: Medium Chain Fatty Acids (C10-C14) o LCFA: Precursor for hormones; Long Chain Fatty Acids (C16 and >) |
| - What is NEFA. What is esterification? | o NEFA: Non-esterified fatty acids o Esterification: Attached to glycerol backbone |
| - What does it mean when a fatty acid is saturated, mono-unsaturated, or poly-unsaturated? | o Saturated: Fats that have no double bonds o Mono-unsaturated: Fats that have a single double bond o Poly-unsaturated: Fats that contain many double bonds |
| - What is the difference between a conjugated and non-conjugated fatty acid? | o Conjugated: one pair of double bonds separated by a single bond o Non-conjugated: More than 1 single bond; one pair of double bonds separated by more than one single bond |
| - What is the difference between cis and trans fatty acids? | o Cis fatty acids: two hydrogen atoms attached to the double bond in the same side of the carbon chain o Trans fatty acids: two hydrogen atoms bonded to the double bond in the opposite sides of the carbon chain |
| - What form (cis or trans) are fatty acids when they enter the rumen? When they leave? | o Enter as cis and leave as trans after they are converted to trans by bacteria. |
| - Do microbes use fatty acids as an energy source? | o No |
| - Are fatty acids (> 10 carbons) absorbed across the rumen wall? | o Yes |
| - What are the 3 steps in rumen lipid metabolism? | o 1) Microbial hydrolysis of dietary triglycerides (breaking ester bonds) o (2) Microbial biohydrogenation of free fatty acids (add hydrogen, saturate), o (3) Isomerization. |
| - What is hydrolysis? | o Takes lipids and turn them into free fatty acids |
| - What is biohydrogenation? Why does biohydrogenation occur? | o Occurs on feed particles, add H+ to double bond, takes unsaturated fatty acids and turns them into saturated fatty acids |
| - How does ruminant and non-ruminant fat differ? | o Ruminants: Depot fat is more saturated and contain more trans configurations o Non-ruminants: Depot fat reflects dietary fat |
| - Is lipid absorbed in the omasum? | o There is no significant absorption of lipids in the omasum or abomasum |
| - Why is lipid reaching the small intestine often higher than what is fed? | - o Lipid arriving in duodenum is often higher than dietary lipid as 20% disappears in the rumen and due to the contribution of microbial synthesis |
| - What is de novo lipogenesis? | o Fatty acid synthesis o Primary site of lipogenesis is adipose tissue and mammary gland in the ruminant |
| - What VFA is the major precursor for fatty acid synthesis? | o Ruminants: Acetate o Non-ruminants: acetyl CoA |
| - What are the 5-6 general steps in intestinal lipid digestion? | o Microbial phospholipid o Desorption from feed particles o Breakdown of microbial phospholipids o Formation of micelle o Absorption o Re-synthesis into TAG, DAG, MAG, in enterocyte o Packaged into chylomicron and VLDL in enterocyte o Entry into b |
| - What molecules are used to form micelles in ruminants? Why are these molecules able to form micelles? | o Surfactants |
| - Where does most fatty acid absorption occur? | o Jejunum |
| - How are fatty acids > 14 carbons absorbed and processed? Fatty acids < 14 carbons? | o <C14: enter the blood directly and go to the liver o >C14: lymph: not soluble in blood - |
| - What happens to free fatty acids (>14C) when they enter the intestinal cells? | o Microbes break off fatty acids in the rumen and end up in the intestine as fatty acids which are insoluble, so they need help becoming soluble in water by forming a micelle. |
| - How are chylomicrons and VLDL formed? | MAG, DAG, and TAG are packaged with phospholipid, cholesterol, and apoproteins |
| - Are VLDL processed in the ruminant liver? Why or why not? | o No they are processed at tissue. In non-ruminants VLDL is processed at the liver. |
| - What is the primary site of lipogenesis in ruminants? In non-ruminants? | o Ruminants: Adipose tissue and mammary gland o Non-ruminants: Liver |
| - Where does glycerol come from for production of triglyceride? | o Seeds (Cereal Grain) o Glycerol is released from tissue and goes to the liver for production of glucose. |
| - What form are fatty acids stored in in fat tissue? What form are they in blood? | o Fat tissue: triglycerides o Blood: free fatty acids or non-esterified fatty acids |
| - Describe the progression of an animal from a normal state to a ketotic state? | o A ketotic state is when the animal has too much fat in their liver that they cant degrade causing them to become ketotic. In ruminants the liver doesn’t have the ability to use fats. Ketosis occurs if glucose production is not fast enough causing ketone |
| - How do cows get fatty liver? Describe the progression to fatty liver | o Ketosis in cattle occurs during the first 60 days of lactation. Glucose production is not fast enough, liver cannot utilize ketones, and ketone utilization by tissues is not fast enough. o Transport of TAG out of the liver as VLDL is inefficient so th |
| - What is the cause of ketosis in sheep? | o Is associated with the glucose demands during late pregnancy. o Caused by inadequate energy intake in the ewe and is accentuated by stress. |
| - What other problems can result when fatty liver occurs? | o Mastitis o Ketosis o Retained Placenta o Infertility o Milk fever o Displaced abomasum o Metritis |
| - What are the 2 main goals of ruminant nutrition? | o Improve the amount of nutrients extracted per unit feed and the efficiency of nutrient utilization o Improve the efficiency of use of absorbed nutrients |
| - What factors effect nutritive value of a feed? (there are 3) | o Digestibility o Feed Consumption o Energy efficiency |
| - What is digestibility? | o The ability to breakdown feed o The matter lost through the digestive tract for a given feedstuff and is the most reproducible measure of a feedstuff |
| - What is the difference between apparent and true digestibility? | o Apparent digestibility: Undigested nutrients in feces o True digestibility: Endogenous secretions in feces Takes into account endogenous secretions while apparent digestibility does not |
| - Given that 1000 g of feed DM contained 25% of a nutrient and 170 g of fecal DM contained 75% of that same nutrient, calculate a total tract digestibility that feed. | (250-127.5)/250*100=49% 1000*0.25=250 170*0.75=127.5 |
| - What factors affect digestibility (there are 6)? | o Lignin: increases with plant maturity o Preservation o Particle size Increase in particle size= decrease in digestibility Decrease in particle size= increasing in digestibility o Associative effects o Feed Intake o Rate of passage |
| - How - Why is knowledge about an animals feed intake important? | o Intake directly influences production o Estimation of intake is needed to formulate rations |
| - What are some ways feed intake is expressed? | o Dry matter basis o % of body weight o Kg DM/(BW)^*0.75 o As a function of maintenance requirements o Relative to a test feed |
| - What factors affect feed intake? | o Gut fill Stretch receptors in the rumen o Animal factors: Size, physiological stage, age, health • Energy demands • Gut capacity o Palatability o Choices (grazing animal) o Feed quality (Preservation, nutrient quality) o Ambient temperature |
| - What is palatability? | o Free choice of consumption when the animal is given more than 1 choice |
| - What factors are affected by feed intake? | o Energy needs to digest feed and absorb nutrients (heat increment) o Growth of rumen bacteria (and survival) o ROP (Rate of Passage) o Digestibility o Gut Fill o Performance |
| - What do animals use energy for? | o Maintenance o Conceptus o Lactation o Body weight gain |
| - Why is heat production a good way to measure energy loss? | o Energy is neither created or destroyed it is changed from one form to another so all forms of energy are quantitatively convertible to heat and then heat is loss which can be a way to measure energy loss. |
| - What is a calorie defined as? | o Heat required to raise 1g of water from 16.5 degrees Celsius to 17.5 degrees Celsius |
| - Why is the energy value of protein discounted from 5.6 Mcal/kg to 4 Mcal/kg? | o There’s more of energy cost to digest protein as its less digestible and there’s a loss in urine or an energy cost when an amino acid is used as there is urea lost to the urine |
| - What in a feed determines how much gross energy is in the feed? | o Carbon o Hydrogen |
| - What are GE, DE, ME, and NE and how are they determined? | o GE is gross energy (what is in the feed) and is determined when it goes through a bomb calorimeter and heat is released when feed is completely oxidized to CO2 to H2O. o DE is digestible energy and incorporates fecal energy which is subtracted by GE o |
| - Why is GE not a good measure of energy available for an animal? | o There’s a cost to the animal to actually metabolize those energy feeds so the animal digests carbs and there’s an energy cost so the component is discounted due to that energy cost which is the Physiological Fuel Value |
| - Are NE values of feeds for cattle the same as for pigs? Why or why not | o Each animal can metabolize differently o There are different demands/systems o There are different diet combinations/feed forms |
| - What is NEm, NEg, and NEl? | o NEm: Net Energy for maintenance o Neg: Net energy for production (tissue) o NEI: Net energy for production (lactation) |
| - What is the purpose for partitioning energy in feed into NEm, NEg, and NEl? | o Determines what to feed and when o Determine how much to feed |
| - What 3 functions does an animal use NEm for? | o Body temperature regulation o Essential metabolic processes o Physical activity |
| - What is heat increment? | o Heat of digestive fermentation o Heat of digestion o Heat of absorption o Heat of nutrient metabolism |
| - What are 4 methods to calculate heat production? | o Direct Calorimetry o Indirect Calorimetry o Blood Flow o Slaughter balance |
| - What is metabolic body weight and why is it used? | o Different size animals produce different amounts of heat o Heat increment is proportional to body surface area |
| - What are 4 factors that affect efficiency of energy for growth and/or lactation? | o Environment o Maintenance costs vary with activity level, lactation o Maintenance cost vary with level of intake o Genetics (breed) |
| - What are the fat soluble vitamins? Water soluble vitamins? | o Fat soluble vitamins: Absorbed with lipids (in small intestines) Contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen A,D,E,K Activity in International Units (IU) o Water soluble vitamins: Absorbed by passive diffusion Contains nitrogen, sulfur |
| - What vitamins are typically supplemented to ruminants? Why aren’t water soluble vitamins supplemented? | o A, D, and E are typically supplemented to ruminants and water soluble aren’t as farm animals don’t need vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins are made through ruminal fermentation. |
| - Under what conditions would mature ruminants need to be supplemented with water soluble vitamins? | o High producing dairy cows |
| - What factors influence vitamin stability? | o Heat o Oxygen o Light o Humidity o PH |
| - What vitamin is central to the problem of moldy sweet clover hay? What compound decreased this vitamins availability? What is the impact of this vitamin on animal metabolism? | o Vitamin K o Dicoumarol blocks the action of Vitamin K in forming Prothrombin o Decreased blood clotting |
| - What is the relationship between beta carotene and vitamin A? | o Both are required in the animals diet o Carotenes are precursors o Vitamin A: Naturally occurs in animals o Carotenes: Are the forms that occur in plant |
| - What are the consequences of vitamin A deficiency? | o Night blindness o Reduced fee intake o Rough hair coat o Edema of joints and brisket o Watery eyes o Low conception rates o Abortion o Reduced immune function |
| - Describe how vitamin D is derived from sunlight? What organs are involved? | o The UV rays are convert 7-dehydrocholesterol from the skin into active Vitamin D |
| - What are the 3 forms of vitamin D3? Which one is the active form? | o Vitamin D (Active Form) o Vitamin D2 (Ergocalciferol) o Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol) |
| - What does vitamin D do to calcium absorption? | o It is a function by absorbing in. |
| - What happens when vitamin D is fed at toxic levels? | o Can cause Vitamin D toxicity o Symptoms include Loss of appetite Weight loss Reduced rumination Calcification of soft tissues Inflammation Demineralization of bones |
| - What is the function of vitamin E in the body? | o Inter and intracellular antioxidant activity o Protects and facilitates the uptake and storage of Vitamin A o Maintenance of cell membranes o Immunity o Reproduction |
| - What happens when vitamin E is deficient? | o Deteriorations of striated muscle o Retained placenta o Displaced abomasum o Reduced reproduction o Reduced disease resistance |
| - When would vitamin K deficiency be an issue? | o Would be an issue when cattle consume moldy sweet clover which is a fungus |
| - What are some cases where B-vitamins are supplemented to mature ruminants? | o On a high grain diet, clostridia bacteria can be produced that reduces thiamin so as a safety factor thiamin is typically added to the diet to prevent a deficiency. |
| - When would thiamin need to be supplemented? | o If the animal is fed rapidly fermented diets o Or if there was a thiamin deficiency |
| - What are commodity feeds? | o Something like corn or barley that can be purchased in mass from a feed mill or large company, not value added (not changed in anyway) |
| - What is the difference between wholesale and retail feed companies? | o Wholesale mills are marketing to retailers and wholesale ingredients market feed additives to companies. Retail feed companies are local feed stores, may be brand specific and can formulate custom products. |
| - What is a TMR? | o TMR stands for total mixed ration which is put in the feed bunk to ensure a balanced diet |
| - What size of farm would use a TMR? Hand feed? | o Large farms would use TMR and small farms would use hand feed |
| - What is component feeding? | o A farmer would formulate a ration but if you don’t have the bunk space to make a TMR you would have barrels of one component of the feed and so forth. You will see this if you want your animals to eat pasture, they will eat the pasture and have some com |
| - What are 4 different ways that supplements can be supplied? | o Mineral pack, protein + mineral, energy + mineral, and complete feed (total ration) |
| - What kind of information are feed manufacturers required to put on feed tags? | o Product and brand name, descriptive purpose statement, and if the feed is medicated then it must say MEDICATED, purpose of medication, precautionary statements for safe use, and name and concentration of all active ingredients. |
| - What is extra label use? | o They aren’t following label instructions; you can’t increase the dosage you have to follow what it says on the label. You would need a veterinarian prescription to do so. |
| - Why is it important to know how much urea is in a feed supplement? | o Urea doesn’t match as well with a high forage diet |
| - Why do dairy producers feed cows for 5-15% feed refusals? | o We don’t want to limit milk production |
| - Why do beef producers manage for slick bunks? | o We want the cattle to clean up the bunks and they match the amount of feed delivered to the amount of feed cattle can handle so in the morning the bunk is slick and wet from their salvia. |
| - What does a tall firm stool indicate? | o High roughage, cattle are not being pushed |
| - What does a flat gray stool indicate? | o Acute acidosis, potential rumen damage |
| - What does an ideal stool look like? | o Soft stool, flat brown is good but the optimum is brown |
| - What is the difference between macro and micro minerals? | o Macro minerals are needed in large amounts in the diet Macro concentrations (gram amounts, % of diet) o Micro minerals are needed in small amounts in the diet Trace minerals Micro concentrations (mg amount, mg/kg or PPM) |
| - What are the 7 macro minerals | o Calcium o Phosphorus o Magnesium o Potassium o Sodium o Chlorine o Sulfur |
| - What factors influence optimum trace mineral status? | o Bioavailability of total mixed ration o Demand for total mixed ration |
| - What is a mineral antagonism | o The negative interaction between two minerals |
| - What is the difference between and organic and inorganic mineral? | o Organic: Chemically attached to an organic molecule (carbohydrate or protein) o Inorganic: Are easy to produce and is bound to sulfate, chloride, carbonate, or oxide |
| - What is a mineral chelate | o Chemically attached |
| - Why is it important to know intake when making mineral purchases? | o Mineral consumption is hard to target so we have to limit what the animal eats to meet the requirement while still staying withing the budgets o Want to get as close to the animals limit as possible |
| - Why is calcium important? | o Helps with: Milk production Bone development |
| - What happens when cows become calcium deficient? What are some causative factors? | o What happens: Hypocalcemia Parturient paresis (paralysis) After calving Increased Ca demand for mill production o Causative factors: Abrupt: • Dry, pregnant 58 g/d drain • 15-30 g secreted in colostrum Increased incidence with age |
| - Besides diet, where can calcium come from to meet requirements? | o Absorption from the GI Tract Vitamin D o Mobilization from bone Parathyroid hormone o Resorption from kidney Parathyroid hormone |
| - How can milk fever be prevented? | o Do not over-feed Calcium prior to calving o Keep Ca:P at 2:1 o Feed a greater amount of anions prior to calving |
| - What is grass tetany and when is it likely to occur? | o Is a magnesium deficiency o Occurs during early lactation |
| - What happens during sulfur toxicity? How does it progress to PEM? | o Ingest dietary sulfate that converts sulfate into H2S gas in the rumen that gets eructated and inhaled which is very poisonous which interferes with TPP and causes brain cell damage that leads to PEM PEM (Polioencephalomalacia) • Which is the soften |
| - What part of the US is Selenium deficient? Toxic? | o Deficient: Great Lake regions o Toxic: in soils in the West Coast |
| - What happens when Se is deficient? Toxic? | o Deficient: Can cause white muscle disease due to glutathione peroxidase o Toxic: Hair loss Hoof deformities Weight loss diarrhea |
| - What is the legal level of Se supplementation? | o 0.3 ppm/d (300ppb) |
| - What is the function of iodine in the body? | o Constituent of thyroxin (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) o Intimately associated with basal metabolic rate |
| - What happens during I deficiency? | o Deficiency: Reduced basal metabolic rate, growth rate, gonadal activity Dry skin, brittle hair Young: cretinism Adults: myxedema Goiters (enlarged thyroid) can result when the thyroid attempts to obtain more iodine |
| - What happens during I toxicity? | o Toxicity: Hyperthyroidism (too much iodine) Overactive metabolism Increased BMR |
| - How does nitrate toxicity progress? | Accumulation of nitrate in forages Accumulation of nitrate in water (sewage) Nitrate(NO3) reduced to nitrite (No2) |
| - How does nitrate toxicity progress? How is iron involved? | NO2 alters form of iron found in hemoglobin Makes it so hemoglobin cant transport oxygen |
| - How does nitrate toxicity progress? How is iron involved? When is nitrate toxicity likely to occur? | When consuming forages with nitrate in them Seen in silo gas |
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megan_krzy