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unit 5
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Memory The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information | The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information |
| Recall | A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test |
| Recognition | A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test |
| Relearning | A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again |
| Encoding | The process of getting information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning |
| Storage | The process of retaining encoded information over time |
| Retrieval | The process of getting information out of memory storage |
| Parallel Processing | Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions |
| Sensory memory | The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system |
| Short-term memory | Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (7+/-2), such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten |
| Long-term memory | The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences |
| Working memory | A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious , active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory (what you are currently “working” with in your mind) |
| Explicit memory | Retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (also called declarative memory) |
| Automatic processing | Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings |
| Implicit memory | Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory) |
| Iconic memory | A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
| Echoic memory | A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds |
| Chunking | Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically |
| Mnemonics | Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
| Spacing effect | The tendency for distributed studying or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice (i.e. cramming) |
| Testing effect | Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information (i.e. daily quizzing) |
| Shallow processing | Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words |
| Deep processing | Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention |
| Semantic memory | Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory) |
| Episodic memory | Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is explicit memory) |
| Hippocampus | A neural center, located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage |
| Memory consolidation | The neural storage of long-term memory |
| Flashbulb memory | A clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
| Long-term potentiation (LTP) | An increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory |
| Priming | The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory |
| Encoding specificity principle | The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it |
| Mood-congruent memory | The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood |
| Serial position effect | Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list |
| Anterograde amnesia | An inability to form new memories |
| Retrograde amnesia | An inability to retrieve information from one’s past |
| Proactive interference | The forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information (old interferes with new) |
| Retroactive interference | The backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information (new interferes with old) |
| Repression | In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
| Reconsolidation | A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again |
| Misinformation effect | Occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event |
| Source amnesia | Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (also called source misattribution); source amnesia, along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories |
| Deja vu | That eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before”; cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience |
| Cognition | All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| Concept | A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people |
| Prototype | A mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to prototypes provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories |
| Creativity | The ability to produce new and valuable ideas |
| Convergent thinking | Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution |
| Divergent thinking | Expanding the number of possible problem solutions’ creative thinking that diverges in different situations |
| Algorithm | A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem |
| Heuristic | A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but more error-prone than an algorithm |
| Insight | A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions |
| Confirmation bias | A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence |
| Fixation | In cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving |
| Mental set | A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past |
| Intuition | An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning |
| Representativeness heuristic | Estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information |
| Availability heuristic | Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common |
| Overconfidence | The tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments |
| Belief perseverance | Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
| Framing | The way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments |
| Hermann Ebbinghaus | Pioneering memory researcher who studied relearning, retention, and forgettin (“retention” & “forgetting” curve) |
| Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin | Proposed three-stage model for memory (sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory) |
| George A. Miller | Proposed short-term memory capacity is 7+/-2 |
| Eric Kandel | Studied the neural basis for memory & learning using sea slugs |
| Elizabeth Loftus | Studied memory reconstruction and the misinformation effect |
| Wolfgang Kohler | Studied insight learning in animals |
| Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman | Studied representativeness & availability heuristics |
| Effortful processing | Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort |
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