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ANAT 312 Midterm 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Early vertebrates had big ______ and not much else | Brainstems |
| Early in vertebrate evolution, the _____ dominated, not the ______ | Brainstem, cerebrum |
| The ______ in the midbrain was the main visual and auditory region prior to brain evolution | tectum |
| The tectum is composed of the _____ and ______ colliculi | superior, inferior |
| As the brain evolved, the _____ plugged into the sensory and motor systems and eventually took on an ______ role | cerebrum, executive |
| What are the three main functions of the brainstem? | Conduit, CNs 3-12, integrative |
| What does the brainstem conduit? | Sensory nerves up/in, motor nerves down/out |
| Information is ______ between the periphery and verebrum/cerebellum | relayed |
| Ascending pathways are ______ | sensory |
| What are the two main ascending pathways? | Dorsal columns - medial lemniscus, and the spinothalamic tract |
| What does the dorsal colum medial lemniscus pathway sense for? | Proprioception, touch, pressure ie mechanosensation |
| What does the spinothalamic tract sense for? | Pain and temperature |
| The ascending tracts are _________ for the body | mechanosensation |
| The dorsal columns-medial lemniscus path will crossover where? | In medulla |
| Where does the ascending tract relay? To where? | thalamus to cortex |
| Spinothalamic tract crosses over where? | In the spinal cord |
| Descending pathways are ____ motor neuron axons destined to synapse on _______ motor neurons | Upper, lower |
| Where do upper motor neurons synapse on the lower ones? | ventral and intermediate horns of the spinal cord |
| What do upper motor neurons form? | Cortico-spinal tracts |
| What nuclei can upper motor neurons also be found in? | Vestibular, red, tectal, reticular |
| What are the oldest motor control areas? | Upper motor neurons |
| What do the oldest motor control areas now work with? | Newer motor and premotor cortex |
| The cortico-spinal tract courses through the ______ | brainstem |
| Is the corticospinal tract ascending or descending? | Descending |
| What can happen if there is a lesion to the corticospinal tract? | Locked-in syndrome |
| What is locked-in syndrome? | Paralysis, but fully concious |
| Why does locked-in syndrome occur? | UPNs are cut, but cortical cognitive function is still okay |
| Damage to CNI symptom | decreased ability to smell |
| Damage to CN II symptom | Blindness, visual field defect |
| Damage to CNIII symptom | dilared pupil, ptosis |
| Damage to CNIV symptom | duplopia |
| Damage to CNV symptom | maybe decreased facial sensation, sensory deficit on testing, signed in IX, X, XI, XII |
| Damage to CNVI symptom | Inability of eye to look laterally, eye deviated towards nose |
| Damage to CNVII symptom | Facial weakness |
| Damage to CNVIII symptom | deafness |
| Damage to CNIX and CNX symptom | impaired gag reflex |
| Damage to CNXI symptom | weakness turning head and shrugging shoulders |
| Damage to CNXII symptom | tongue deviated to affected side |
| What are the four main things that the brainstem in involved in? | Cardiovascular, respiratory, pain sensitivity controls, and influencing consciousness |
| Brainstem damage is often ______ and ______ | serious, life threatening |
| What are some of the carsiovascular areas of the brainstem? | vasodilation, noradrenaline |
| Several respiratory areas in ______-_______ receive "higher" and CNIX, X inpit | pons-medulla |
| Respiratory output from brainstem affects _____ traffic to lungs and respiratory muscles | autonomic |
| What is global ischemia? | Lack of blood flow to the brain, all blood in entire brain is stopped |
| What can occur following global ischemia (AKA Brown-Sequard syndrome) | Cerebral cortical function is lost before brainstem function |
| What areas of the brain better survice global ischemia? | hypothalamus and brainstem |
| What is PVS? | Persistant vegetative state |
| What is PNS characterized by? | wakefulness without awareness - chronic neurological disorder |
| PVS has widespread damage to what areas in the brain? | cerebral cortical neurons, thalamic neurons, and their white matter connections |
| What areas of the brain are spared in PVS? | hypothalamus and brainstem - heart and breathing, sleep/wake cycles still intact |
| What does PVS result from? | Extensive bilateral lesions to higher brain gray matter, and/or white matter in the higher brain |
| In PVS patients, what are the two criteria they use to know if the brainstem is working but the higher brain is not? | What is missing vs what is retained |
| What is missing in PVS patients? | Awareness of self/environment, voluntary behavioural responses, language comprehension/expression |
| In PVS patients, what is retained? | Sleep-wake cycles, cranial nerve reflexes, hypothalamic/brainstem autonomic functions |
| The brainstem is more ______ to ischemia than the higher brain | resilient |
| What is a coma? | Deep state of unconsciousness often caused by severe head trauma |
| What does a coma result in? | Bilateral lesions to the neticular network in the brainstem |
| What must function or else the higher brain will shut down? | Reticular Activating System (RAS) |
| Consciousness requires ______ ______ function | upper brainstem |
| The RAS much be intact for the _____ of consciousness to be expressed | Content |
| Can there be recovery from a coma? | Yes |
| What is brain death? | Usually, both RAS and respiratory centre damage |
| What does respiratory centre damage result in? Patient has to be placed on what? | Apnea, respiratory |
| _____ + _____ = Brain dead? | inability to breath + loss of RAS |
| How do you "fail" the apnea test? | No breathing, high blood CO2 |
| What do ancillary tests include? | Loss of response to central pain and absent brain stem reflexes |
| Is it possible to recover from brain stem death? | No |
| Patients with a severe head injury or massive inter-cranial hemorrhage often die as a result of ____ | apnea |
| What happens as the higher brain expands? | Brainstem death - it pushes down on the brainstem |
| In brainstem death, what stops first - breathing or heartbeat? | Breathing - pressure of brainstem from free edge of tentorial notch |
| How does head injury threaten brainstem function? | displacement of higher brain |
| _______ _______ and/or ____ ____ causes a space-occupying lesion, forcing the brain downward | pooling blood, brain swelling |
| Which types of herniation force the brainstem tissue under pressure which likely leads to death? | uncal, transtentorial, cerebellar |
| What is uncal herniation damage? | midbrain-pons damage |
| What is transtentorial herniation? | Downward herniation |
| What happens in cerebellar herniation? | Goes through foramen magnum, medulla damage |
| with ____, ____, and ____ herniation, the brain tissue is pushed around the free edge of the meningeal "scaffolding" | Cingulate, uncal, downward |
| The brainstem is also the origin of six _____ ____ that send inputs to the entire higher brain | neurotransmitter systems |
| Brainstem integrates what 4? | Heart, breathing, pain, conciousness |
| The RAS activates what? | The higherbrain |
| What activates many higher brain regions? | diffuse neurotransmitter systems |
| The brainstem can better survive global loss of blood flow to the _____ brain --> PVS | entire |
| Dorsal nerves are ______ | afferent |
| Ventral roots are _____ | efferent |
| What do the dorsal/ventral roots split into? | Rami |
| What do the rami split into? | Fibres for assorted targets and receptors |
| What are cuteaneous receptors? | Primary afferent responses to mechanical stretch |
| What happens to cell pores when they stretch? | Become large enough for sodium to enter, causing the cell to be afferent. Causes action potential |
| Action potentials ride over ______, transferring to CNS | depolarization |
| What are the 4 sensory receptor attributes | Intensity, modality, duration, location |
| Sensory Receptor Attributes: Intensity | Discharge proportional to the size of the stimuli |
| Sensory Receptor Attributes: Modality | percept is constant for a given receptor |
| Sensory Receptor Attribute: Duration | Slowly or rapidly adapting, will either flare then stop or flare then keep tonically spiking |
| Sensory Receptor Attribute: Location | specific locations for a given afferent, sticks to that position on the skin |
| What are the 3 types of nonencapsulated cutaneous receptors? | Free nerve ending, hair follicule receptors, Merkel's discs |
| Location of Free nerve ending | Glabrous and non-Glabrous |
| Modality of Free nerve ending | pain, temperature, touch, pressure |
| Adaptation of free nerve ending | Varies |
| Location of hair follicule receptors | non glabrous |
| modality of hair follicule receptors | touch |
| adaptation of hair follicule receptors | rapid |
| location of merkel's discs | glabrous and non glabrous |
| modality of merkel's discs | touch |
| adaptation of merkel's discs | slow |
| 3 types of encapsulated cutaneous receptors | Meissner's corpuscle, pacinian corpuscle, ruffini ending |
| Location of Meussner's corpuscle | glabrous |
| Modality of meissner's cospuscle | touch |
| adaptation of meissner's corpuscle | rapid |
| Location of Pacinian Corpuscle | Glabrous and non glabrous |
| Modality of pacinian corpuscle | pressure/vibration |
| Adaptation of pacinian corpuscle | very rapid |
| Location of ruffini ending | glabrous and non glabrous |
| modality of ruffini ending | stretch |
| adaptation of ruffini ending | slow |
| Free nerve endings: ________, ______. All Other Receptors: ______ | pain, temperature. Touch |
| What is the importance of cutaneous receptive fields? | Different field sizes that can respond to mechanical stimuli |
| How many cutenaous receptive fields are they? WHat can they be divided into? | 4, 2 rapidly acting and 2 slow acting |
| Slowly adapting cuteanous receptors have ___, highly _____ on solid black points, still have a dim response outside of pointed areas | larger, highly sensitive |
| Ruffini receptors respond to _____, and have a _____ receptive field around the grey areas. Only in a certain direction | stretch, broad |
| The size of receptor fileds _____ across the body | varies |
| Size of range for two point discrimination fingers? | small |
| Size of range for two point discrimination back? | large |
| What is two point discrimination measuring? | How far it is before your body can no longer distinguish length between two points, notes it as having one point source |
| What are dermatomes? | organization of receptive fields, topography of receptors and relationship to spinal nerves |
| The dermatome makes most sense when the human body is positioned in ______ organization | quadripedal |
| Is there usually overlap of adjacent receptor fields? | Yes |
| What is the clinical significance of having an overlap between adjacent receptor fields | If you lose innervation in a single spinal nerve, you will still have some innervation remaining from an adjacent spinal nerve. If you lose innervation in both, you are more likely to have paralysis |
| Are the dermatomes and peripheral nerve territories a 1:1 map? What does this help to identify? | No - identifies if paralysis is reflective of dermatome, or more likely from a peripheral nerve |
| What is the final common output? | Motor unit |
| What makes up a motor unit? | I motoneuron + innervated muscle fibres |
| _____ MNs innervate each muscle | Many |
| Each MN targets ___ ____ muscle | only one |
| Each muscle fibre is only _____ by one motoneuron | innervated |
| When a motoneuron fires, all its _____ _____ contract | muscle fibres |
| Motor units are ______ throughout the muscles | distributed |
| How many axon terminals are at an individual muscle fibre? | Several |
| Whay are myotomes? | Groups of muscles innervated by a single spinal nerve |
| Muscles can be associated with ____ spinal nerves, as well as ____ spinal nerves | single, multiple |
| Muscles have an _______ number of receptors to provide info about how they are being used during motor action | inherant |
| Spindles are ____ _____ structures with intrafusal muscle fibres | long elongated |
| What are the 2 types of afferent muscle spindles | Primary and secondary |
| What is primary afferent muscle spindle | increase with muscle velocity (lengthening) |
| What is the secondary afferent muscle spindle? | increases with muscle length |
| What do gamma motoneurons do | innervate intrafusal muscle fibres and increase the response of afferents |
| Golgi tendon organ goes into capsule located at the ____ ____ | musculotendon junction |
| The golgi tendon organ measures force transmitted from ____ to ____ | muscle, tendon |
| Action potential: | Na+ enters axon to initiate, K+ leaves to terminate |
| Myelin sheath in PNS | Schwann cells, insulates axons, underlying axon has no channels |
| Node of Ranveir | gap between myelin sheaths, location of membrane channels |
| Action potential propagation: | larger axon the faster the transmission - unmyelinated is slow, myelonated axon is fast |
| fastest neuron fibre | muscle spindle primary endings and golgi tendon organs (1a 1b) |
| Second fastest neuron fibre | muscle secondary affere,t meissner corpuscles, merkel endings, pacinian corpuscles (AB) |
| Second slowest neuron fibre | sharp pain, cold, some touch (delta) |
| Slowest neuron fibre | Slow pain, heat, itch, some touch (C fibres) |
| What does Diencephalon mean? | Betwee-brain |
| Diencephalon is located in between the ____ ____ | cerebral hemispheres |
| Diencephalon is located in the _______ of the brain | center |
| Diencephalon is _____ to the brainstem | rostral |
| Diencephalon surrounds what? | 3rd ventricle |
| what are the 4 divisions of the diencephalon? | Epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, subthalamus |
| What does the hypothalamic sulcus divide? | Thalamus from hypothalamus |
| External landmarks of the diencephalon? | Optic chiasm, optic tract, mammillary bodies (caudal border) |
| Internal borders of diencephalon, top down | Lateral ventricle, internal capsule around the thalamus, thalamus around the 3rd ventricle, hypothalamus |
| What structure makes the top of the rostral border of the diencephalon | anterior comissure |
| what structure makes the bottom of the rostral border of the diencephalon | Optic chiasm |
| What makes top of caudal border of diencephalon | pineal gland |
| what makes bottom/inside of caudal border of diencephalon | mammillary bodies |
| Epithalamus is anterior to the | thalamus |
| epithalamus is composed of the unpaired _____ _____ and the paired ____ ____ | pineal gland, habenular nuclei |
| The pineal gland is ____ shaped | pinecone |
| What are the two principal functions of the pineal gland? | endocrine gland with gonadal function |
| Pineal gland secretes _____ in darkness, which regulated the _____ _____ | melatonin, circadian |
| Pineal gland gonadal function is _____ in mammals, with _____ effects in humans | prominent, unclear |
| Does the pineal gland have neural output? | No |
| Pineal gland is an _____ from the roof of the diencephalon | evagination |
| What is the pineal stalk formed of? | Habenula, posterior commissures |
| Habenular nuclei integrate the ____, ____ and ___ ____ pathways | smell, visceral, somatic afferent |
| Habenular nuclei input? | Stria medullaris |
| Habenular nuclei output? | Habenulointerpeduncular tract |
| Habenular nuclei assigns the __ ____ to stimuli | reward value |
| Habenular nuclei is associated with what disorder? | Depression |
| Hypothalamus is located _____ and ______ to the thalamus | inferior, rostral |
| What forms the floor of the third ventricle? | Hypothalamus |
| What components of the hypothalamus are visible on an intact brain? | Infundibular stalk, mammillary bodies |
| The hypothalamus as a visceromotor autonomic control area: | heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, digestive functions. Somatic motor patterns associated with emotions, connections with the limbic system |
| Hypothalamus as viscerosensory autonomic control area | water balance, thirst, body temperature |
| Hypothalamus regulates _____ pituitary hormone release | anterior |
| The hypothalamus also plays an endocrine role by synthesizing ______ as well as _____ for uterine contractions/milk secretions | vasopressin (water retention), oxytoxin |
| the autonomic and hormonal influences of the hypothalamus play into _______ | homeostasis |
| Superior border of the subthalamis | thalamus |
| medial border of subthalamus | hypothalamus |
| lateral borders of subthalamus | cerebral peduncle & internal capsule |
| What does the subthalamic nucleus do? | communicate with basal nuclei to control motor function |
| What is the zona incerta of the subthalamus? | Rostral extension of reticular fibres from midbrain |
| What are the two main pathways from the subthalamus to the thalamus? | Ascending sensory pathways and motor related tracts |
| What are the ascending sensory pathways (subthalamus) | medial lemniscus, spinothalamic tract (spinal lemniscus) |
| Motor related tracts of the subthalamus | cerebellothalamic fibres from dentate nucleus, pallidothalamic fibres from globus pallidus |
| Midbrain insertions of subthalamus | red nucleus, substantia nigra, reticular formation |
| What is hemiballism? | lesion in the subthalamic, cannot communicate with basal. Sudden, violent movements on ipsilateral side to lesion |
| Anterior border of thalamus | interventricular foramen (foramen of monroe) |
| Inferior border of thalamus | hypothalamic sulcus |
| posterior border of thalamus | overlaps the midbrain |
| medial border of thalamus | third ventricle |
| What is the interthalamic adhesion of the thalamus? | intermediate mass |
| What is the principle function of the thalamus? | Relay centre - sensory and motor pathways |
| What sense does thalamus not relay? | Olfaction |
| What are the motor pathways of the thalamus? | Involve cerebellum and basal nuclei |
| Medial internal organization of thalamus | medial nuclear group |
| Lateral internal organization of thalamus | lateral nucelar group |
| Top internal organization of thalamus | anterior nuclear group |
| Y shape in internal organization of thalamus | internal medullary lamina |
| Where is the intralaminar nucleus located in the thalamus? | along the stem of the y of the medullary lamina |
| What connects the thalami? | interthalamic adhesion |
| Inside layer surrounding thalami | external medullary lamina |
| outside layer surrounding thalami, thicker | reticular nucleus |
| Input of anterior nuclear group? | Hypothalamus, hippocampus, mammillary bodies |
| output of anterior nuclear group | limbic system |
| input of medial nuclear group | hypothalamus, thalamus |
| output of medial nucelar group | frontal lobe |
| Ventral subdivisions of lateral nuclear group? | Ventral anterior, ventral lateral, ventral posterior medial, ventral posterior lateral |
| "butt" subdivision of the lateral nuclear group? | pulvinar |
| smaller geniculate body? | Medial geniculate body (MGN) |
| Larger geniculate body | lateral geniculate body (LGN) |
| Input of ventral anterior/lateral nuclear group? | reticular formation, substantia nigra, basal ganglia, red nucleus, cerebellum |
| output of ventral anterior/lateral nuclear group | motor areas |
| input of VPL nuclei group | sensory info |
| output of VPL nuclei group | primary sensory cortex |
| input from VPM nuclei group | sensory info from head regionL ascending trigeminal and gustatory pathways |
| output of VPM nuclei group | primary sensory cortex of parietal lobe |
| input to pulvinar | sensory info |
| output from pulvinar | association cortices |
| input from LGN nuclei group | visual info |
| output from LGN nuclei group | visual cortex of occipital lobe |
| input from MGN nuclei group | auditory info |
| Output from MGN nuclei group | auditory cortex of temporal lobe |
| Lateral posterior nucleus inout | parietal lobe |
| lateral posterior nucleus output | cingulate gyrus |
| Thalamus subdivisions | anterior, medial, lateral |
| Lateral thalamus principal nuclei | ventral, posterior, lateral posterior |
| Ventral thalamus secondary nuclei | ventral anterior, ventral lateral, ventral posterior |
| ventral posterior divisions | ventral posterior lateral, ventral psoterior medial |
| posterior thalamus secondary nuclei | pulvinar, lateral geniculate, medial geniculate |
| 3 types of thalamic nuclei | relay, association, diffusion-projecting |
| Thalamic relay nuclei receive input fibers then project to appropriate ____ ____ | cortical region |
| All thalamic regions have what kind of nuclei? | relay |
| What do association nuclei do? | receive association inputs, distributing to associated cortices |
| What thalamic regions have association nuclei? | LP, Pulvinar, dorsomedial nucleus (receive similar inputs) |
| What do diffusion-projecting nuclei do? | receive inputs from various sides, project to wide region of cerebral cortex and cross cortical boundaries |
| Which thalamic regions have diffusion-projecting nuclei? | intralaminar and midline nuclei |
| Leaving CNS with motor info, heading to effector organ | Efferent |
| Heading to CNS with sensory info, affect | Afferent |
| The anterior (_____) nerve root has ______ fibres sending ________ info to the spinal nerve | Ventral, efferent, motor |
| The posterior (_____) nerve root has ______ fibres bringing ______ info to spinal column | dorsal, afferent, sensory |
| PNS splits into | motor (efferent) and sensory (afferent) |
| Sensory (afferent) splits into | Visceral and somatic afferent |
| Motor (efferent) splits into | somatic and autonomic nervous system |
| Somatic is voluntary or involuntary | voluntary |
| autonomic is voluntary or involuntary | involuntary |
| ANS preganglionic neurons have cell bodies in ____, are _________, and have _______ _____ conducting B fibres | CNS, myelinated, relatively slow |
| AND postganglionic neurons have cell bodies in ______ outside of CNS, are _______ and have ______ conducting fibres | ganglia, unmyelinated, slower |
| Autonomic plexuses are __________ networks of the ______ and ________ | Nerve, thorax, abdomen |
| Autononic plexuses often receive both ________ and _______ info | sympathetic, parasympathetic |
| Sympathetic nervous system energy must be ______ | expended |
| Sympathetic ns is ______ or ____, physical responses to emotional or physical stress | fight or flight |
| Sympathetic nervous system has an increase to _______ and _______ rate | activity, metabolic |
| What kinds of situations arouse the sympathetic nervous system? | E-situations (excitement and emergencies) |
| Origin of sympathetic nervous system | thoracolumbar division (T1-L2) - intermediate grey horn |
| SNS preganglionic neurons are ______ and postganglionic neurons are ______ | short, long |
| Sympathetic preganglions are __________ fibres | cholinergic |
| Sympathetic postganglionics are ________ fibres | adrenergic |
| Exceptions to generic fibre type and length in SNS | Adrenal medulla - 1 unmyelinated, long preganglionic all the way to the medulla to release Ach, resulting in long lasting NE release and spread in the body |
| Paravertebral ganglia make up a _______ chain beside the vertebrae | sympathetic |
| Prevertebral ganglia are the ______, _____ _____, and _____ ______ ganglion | celiac, superior mesenteric, inferior mesenteric |
| SNS pathway | lateral horn, ventral root, spinal nerve, white ramus communicans, paravertebral ganglion |
| What are the 3 major pathways of the SNS? | Direct, ascending/descending, splanchnic nerves |
| Step 1 of pathway:s preganglioinic _____ _____ to _____ ______ | lateral horn to white ramus communicans |
| Direct pathway: synapse at ________ ______, paravertebral ganglion | same level |
| Step 3 of pathways: postganglionic _____ to _______ | grey ramus communicans to ventral ramus |
| Targets of direct pathways | body wall, abdominal and thoraic viscera, limbs |
| Ascending pathway: synapse at ______ ______, paravertebral ganglion | higher level |
| Targets of ascending pathways | head/neck viscera, heart, lungs |
| Descending pathway synapse at ___ _____, paravertebral vertebrae | lower level |
| Targets of descending pathways | body wall, abdominal/pelvic viscera, lower limbs |
| Splanchnic nerve synapse in ____ _____, bypass parabertrbral ganglion | prevertebral ganglion |
| Postganglionic in splanchnic nerve | leaves to target |
| Splanchnic nerve target | abdominal/pelvic viscera |
| Greater splanchic nerve spine location and ganglia | T5-T9, Celiac |
| Lesser planchnic nerve spine location and ganglia | T10-T11, Superior Mesenteric |
| Least Splanchnic nerve spine location and ganglia | T12-L2, Inferior Mesenteric Ganglia |
| Parasympathetic energy must be ______ | reserved |
| Rest and digest of PNS conserve and restore _______ _______ PNS | energy stores |
| PNS _______ activity and metabolic rate | slows |
| Origin of PNS | Craniosacral division |
| Parasympathetic cranial nerves? | 3,7,9,10 |
| Sacral division of PNS? | S2-S4 |
| Sympathetic organization of PSNS - _____ myelinated pre and _____ unmyelinated post | long, short |
| Terminal ganglia of PSNS | ciliary, pterygopalatine, submandibular, otic |
| Three major pathways of PSNS | Cranial/terminal ganglia, vagus nerve & plexus, and pelvic splanchnic nerves |
| Inferior salivatory nucelus ganglion | otic |
| lacrimatory nucleus ganglion | lacrimatory |
| edinger-westphal nucleus ganglia | cilliary |
| superior salvatory nucleus ganglion | submandibular |
| Main contributors to autonomic control | cortex, limbic system, hypothalamus, pons, medulla |
| antagonstic innervation of autonomic control | sympathetic vs parasympathetic |
| What is synergist innervation | continues to contribute a similar response type |
| what is visceral afferents | sending info from periphery up spinal column |
| afferent fibres ___ ____ white ramus communicans, taking the posterior route to brain | passes through |
| what is referred pain? | slow pain that is non-specific to an area |
| Functions of the cerebrum | consciousness, memory, perception, commands skilled movements |
| What is the telencephalon division of the cerebral hemispheres | saggital fissure |
| Are gyri folds or groove | folds |
| are sulci folds or grooves | grooves |
| what are fissures | deep grooves |
| What does the frontal lobe contain | Motor areas, CN I |
| What does the parietal lobe contain | somatosensory areas |
| What does the occipital lobe contain | visual areas |
| what does the temporal lobe contain | auditory areas |
| The insula maintains ______ by processing ______ sensations, taste, and ANS function | homeostasis, visceral |
| The ______ is concealed by frontal, parietal & temporal lobes | Insula |
| What is a collection of axons for CN1 | olfactory bulb and tract |
| the orbital gyrus is a highly variable collection of ________ gyri, important for ______ _________ | small, emotional expression |
| Orbital gyrus role in emotional expression | understanding facial expressions of others, creating facial emotions |
| What lobe is a good indicator of the separation for telencephalon and the diencephalon | limbic lobe |
| Limbic lobe responsibilities | drive, emotions, memory |
| The limbic lobe _______ the telencephalon and diencephalon junction | encircles |
| What 2 gyri make up the limbic lobe? | cingulate gyrus and parahippocampal gyrus |
| Are the ventricles grey or white matter? | NO, they are CSF filled spaces |
| The ventricular system can be found within the _________ _________ | cerebral hemisphre |
| The lateral ventricles are continuous with the _________ _________ | third ventricle |
| What shape are the lateral ventricles | C-shaped |
| The _________ _________ is a thin glial membrane connecting the 2 hemispheres | septum pellucidum |
| The septum pellucidum connects to the _________ _________ | corpus callosum |
| What are the borders of the septum pellucidum | medial wall of anterior horn, body of lateral ventricles |
| The septum pellucidum starts to split the further you get towards the _________ | brainstem |
| The grey matter bordering the lateral ventricles is known as the _________ | caudate |
| 3 parts of the caudate nucleus | head, body, tail |
| Caudate borders | lateral wall of anterior horn and body of ventricle, roof of inferior horn |
| The interthalamic adhesion connects the | thalami |
| As you move posteriorly in the brain, the caudate _____ and the thalamus ______ | shrinks, enlarges |
| The hippocampus makes up the ____ and ______ wall of inferior horn | floor, medial |
| The corpus striatum has a _____ appearance | striated |
| The corpus striatum is connecting _________ _________ nuclei, responsible for _________ and _________ | grey matter, bridging, communication |
| Functions of the corpus striatum | motor control and motor learning |
| The 2 corpus striatum divisions | neostriatum, paleostriatum |
| Divisions of neostraitum | ventral and dorsal striatum |
| Ventral striatum divisions | nucleus accumbens, olfactory tubercle |
| Dorsal striatum divisions | caudate and putamen |
| Division of paleostriatum | globus pallidus |
| Divisions of globus pallidus | externa and interna |
| The neostriatum is the primary ____ of the corpus striatum | receiver |
| The neostriatum receives output information only from ________ __________ _________ | other basal nuclei |
| Nucleus accumbens is in the _________ _________ | basal forebrain |
| Input to nucleus accumbens | limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala |
| Outer shell of nucleus accumbens _________ system | limbic |
| Inner core of nucleus accumbens _________ system | motor |
| Nucleus accumbens has a possible function in _________ system | reward |
| Olfactory tubricale input | limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala |
| The olfactory tubercle has no role in _________ | olfaction |
| caudate input | cortical association and parietal associating areas - attention |
| Caudate projects to _________ areas, just in front of the area designated for comprehension | prefrontal |
| Caudate is important in _________ functioning | cognitive |
| putamen is found deep/medial to the _________ | insula |
| putamen input | motor & somatosensory areas |
| putamen projects to _________, _________ and _________ _________ areas- same as the VL VA of thalamus | motor, pre-motor, supplementary motor |
| Cortical association areas - caudate - _________ _________ | prefrontal areas |
| motor & somatosensory areas - _________ - motor, pre-motor & supplementary motor areas | putamen |
| Paleostriatum receives input from | neostriatum-ventral striatum |
| Paleostriatum output from | motor-related areas (pre-frontal, primary and accessory areas) |
| Globus pallidus is divided by _________ _________ _________-_________ _________ | medial medullary lamina-white matter |
| GPe more lateral or medial | lateral |
| GPi more lateral or medial | medial |
| Difference between Globus Pallidus Externa and Interna | Similar inputs, different outputs |
| Lentiform nucleus is composed of the _________ (from neostriatum) and the_________ _________ (from paleostriatum) | putamen, globus pallidus |
| Lentiform nucleus is an _________ grouping, not a _________ grouping | anatomical, functional |
| 3 types of white matter fibers in cerebral hemispheres | association, commissural, projection |
| The white matter association fibers are _________ | paired |
| Short association fibers connect _________ _________ | adjacent gyri |
| short association fibers are in the _________ lobe in the _________ hemisphere - used for association and accessory lobe connection | same, same |
| Long association fibers connect _________ _________, within the same hemisphere | cerebral lobes |
| Long association fibers can travel _________, and have no distinct entry or exit | bidirectionally |
| Cingulum/cingulate fasciculus connects what 3 structures? | frontal lobe, parietal lobe, parahippocampal gyrus |
| Uncinate fasciculus fibers are _________ shaped, connecting _________ _________ lobe and _________ _________ lobe | hook, superior , anterior temporal |
| Superior longitudinal fasciculus connects which lobes | frontal to parietal and occipital |
| INferior longitudinal fasciculus connects which lobes | temporal and occipital |
| Commissural fibers connects _________ regions between hemispheres for correlation and coordination | equivalent |
| Main commisural fibers | corpus callosum, fornix commisure |
| Corpus callosum connects the two _________ _________ | cerebral hemispheres |
| The corpus callosum curves towards the _________ _________ anteriorly, and the _________ _________ posteriorly | olfactory tract, temporal lobe |
| The forceps minor (_________) crosses midline at _________ | frontal, genu |
| Forceps major (_________) crosses midline at _________ | occipital, splenium |
| AGCC is the congenital _________ of the entirety or part of the corpus callosum | absence |
| Fornix commissure aka | hippocampal comissure |
| fornix commissure connects _________ to _________ _________ | hippocampus to mamillary bodies |
| What forms the hippocampal commissure? | left and right crus of Fornix |
| Corpus callosum | connects two cerebral hemispheres |
| hippocampal commissure | connects hippocampus & mamillary bodies |
| Anterior commissure | connects olfactory regions |
| posterior commissure | connects visual nuclei - superior colliculi |
| Projection fibers are _________ and _________ | ascending and descending |
| Projection fibers are interconnecting which brain structures? | Cortex, thalamus, basal nuclei, brainstem |
| Internal capsule divides the _________ and _________ | caudate putaman |
| Ascending fiber tract | thalamocortical |
| Descending fibre tracts | frontopontine, corticobulbar, corticospinal |
| Limbic lobe is the "_________ lobe" | emotional |
| Limbic lobe borders the _________ and external _________ | diencephalon, telencephalon |
| memories and emotion are located _________ | in the same area (limbic lobe) |
| corpus callosum is the _________ of the limbic system | midline |
| key structures of outer arc of the limbic system | cingulate and parahippocampal gyri |
| Key structures of inner arc of limbic system | hippocampus, fornix |
| Other structures of limbic system, not inner or outer | subcallosal gyrus, amygdala, anterior thalamus |
| The hippocampus is the _________ center | memory |
| The hippocampus is located in the _________ _________ lobe | medial temporal |
| Hippocampus starts at the same level as the _________, ends at the _________ of the corpus callosum | pons, splenium |
| Neocortex has _________ cells that span to other cortical/subcortical areas to synapse | pyramidal |
| The _________ cells of the neocortex are associated with the motor cortex, synapsing with the spinal cord | betz |
| non-pyramidal cells of the neocortex are _________ cells, associated with the _________ cortex | |
| Non-pyramidal axons stay local to the _________ | cortex |
| _________ cells are the principle interneurons that act to translate the activity within the cortex | Principle interneurons |
| top neocortex layer is the _________ layer, which is a _________ _________ layer, with axons and dendrites of neurons from deep layers | molecular, cell poor |
| Second layer of neocortex is the _________ _________ layer - has cortical projections, contributing for higher function | external granular |
| third neocortex layer is the _________ _________ layer - has cortical projections and contributes to higher cognition | external pyramidal |
| the fourth neocortex layer is the _________ _________ layer, which gets input from the thalamus | internal granular |
| the fifth neocortex layer is the _________ _________ layer, which is an output layer to send information from the cortex to the brainstem, spinal cord, basal ganglia | internal pyramidal |
| sixth layer of neocortex is the _________ layer, which is fusiform shaped, projects to the thalamus and has modified pyramidal cells | multiform |
| The primary sensory cortex is the _________ cortex, layers II-V which are dominated by small granule cells and pyramidal cells | granular |
| The primary motor cortex is the _________ cortex, which is the thickest layer with the highest amount of pyramidal cells. Layers II-V, Betz cells | Agranular |
| How many of broadmann's areas are there? what are they based on? | 53, cytoarchitectonics |
| BA4 is the primary _________ area, initiates voluntary motion of contralateral side | motor |
| what makes up BA4? | pre-central gyrus and anterior wall of central sulcus |
| What kind of organization in BA4 - Primary motor area | somatotopic |
| BA6 is the _________ (external) & _________ (internal) motor areas for guided movement | premotor, supplementary |
| Lesion to BA6 results in | apraxia |
| Location of BA6 | anterior to primary motor cortex: lateral and medial extensions |
| BA6 is the _________ _________ _________, controls contralateral saccades / eye movements | frontal eye field |
| Location of BA6 | anterior to motor cortex, extends medially |
| Lesion to frontal eye field | impaired contralateral eye movement |
| BA44/45 is _________ _________, responsible for motor control in producing written/spoken language | Broca's area |
| A lesion to broca's area results in _________ _________, trouble producing language, but with comprehension intact | broca's non-fluent aphasia |
| Comprehension --> BA44/45 --> _________ --> muscles of speech | BA4 |
| BA 1,2,3 is the _________ _________ _________, with contralateral processing of touch, pain, temperature, proprioception | Primary somatosensory area |
| BA 1,2,3 location | three parallel strips in parietal lobe (postcentral gyrus) |
| What kind of organization of BA 1,2,3 | somatotopic |
| BA5,7 is the _________ _________ area, which orients objects to self, object recognition by touch | somatosensory association |
| lesion to BA5,7 results in asterognosis and _________ agnosia | tactile |
| BA17 is the __________ ________ _________, which is contralateral visual field information relay | primary visual cortex |
| Location of BA17 | calcarine sulcus, extends medially |
| Lesion to BA17 | total or near loss of conscious awareness of visual stimuli (cortical blindness) |
| BA18, 19 is the _________ _________ _________, which is higher order processing of BA17, and the recognition of objects/people | visual association cortex |
| Location of BA18,19 | occipital lobe, extends to temporal lobe |
| lesion to visual association cortex | visual agnosia |
| BA41 is the _________ _________ _________, perception of sound and frequency | primary auditory cortex |
| Location of BA41 | superior surface of temporal lobe, transverse temporal gyri |
| lesion to BA41 | unilateral, does not affect hearing due to bilateral representation |
| BA42/22 is the _________ _________ _________, which aids with perception of auditory input and the recognition of sounds | auditory association areas |
| location of BA42/22 | superior temporal gyrus |
| lesion to BA42 | trouble with perceptions of sounds, unable to differentiate |
| BA22 is _________ _________, comprehension of written and spoken language | Wernicke's Area |
| Location of BA22 | posterior aspect of superior temporal gyrus, often on left hemisphere |
| Lesion to BA22 causes _________ _________, trouble with comprehension but production of language is intact | Wernicke's area |
| Pathway of comprehension and speech in Brodmann's area | BA42/22 --> BA22 --> BA44/45 --> BA4 --> Muscles of speech |
| Hemispheric dominance has an _________ to it | asymmetry |
| the planum temporale is involved in _________ processing and _________ _________, as well as lexical processing | auditory, receptive language |
| Leftward hemisphere asymmetry in _________ of individuals | 60-70% |
| Righward henisphere asymmetry has a correlation with a hereditary risk of _________ | dyslexia |
| memory is the process where information is _________ and _________ | stored. retrieved |
| Memory is a continuous, __-_______ process that starts with a stimulus | bi-directional |
| Pathway from input to sensory memory is known as _________ | conversion |
| from sensory memory to short term/working memory | encoding |
| lack of rehersal in short term memory leads to | forgetting |
| short term memory to long term memory | consolidation |
| long term memory to short term/working memory | retrieval |
| Short term memory is a component of _________ memory | working |
| working memory = newly _________ information + _________ information | encoded, retrieved |
| short term memory = _________ _________ information only | newly encoded |
| 2 things short term memory depends on | attention, decay |
| short term memory acts as a _________, only stimuli that are given _________ enter working memory | filter, attention |
| How can you bypass the short term memory filter | attention |
| memory synapses are plastic, meaning they | are subject to change |
| potentiation is the _________ of a synapse, with _________ NT release | strengthening, increased |
| Depression is the _________ of NT stores, as well as _________ activation | depletion, autoreceptor activation |
| 3 helpful memory tricks | chunking, mnemonics, dual-encoding |
| Long term memory info initially stored in _________, moves to _________ | hippocampus, neocortex |
| long term memory has an _________ capacity for information | unlimited |
| 2 styles of long term memory | systemic, synaptic |
| systemic long term memory | redistribution of memories from an area to another system |
| Synaptic long term memory | long term potentiation at the level of the synapse |
| Pathway of systemic long term memory consolidation | hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, neocortex |
| Long term potentiation uses newly _________ NTs and _________ channels to strengthen a synaptic connection | synthesized, ionotropic |
| Potentiation long term stems | Ca moves through NMDA, translocated AMPA to post-synaptic membrane, increases synaptic sensitivity, signals presynaptic neuron to release |
| Divisions of long term memory | explicity (conscious) and Implicit (subconscious) |
| Divisions of explicit/declarative/conscious long term memory | semantic (facts) and episodic (events) |
| Divisions of implicit memory | procedural, emotional association, conditioning |
| Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is responsible for _________ _________ | working memory |
| ventromedial prefrontal cortex receives input from _________, responsible for _________ & _________ | amygdala, fear, risk |
| Limbic system divisions in prefrontal cortex | dosrolateral and ventromedial |
| Components of the hippocampal formation | dentate gyrus, hippocampus proper, subuculum |
| Components of the hippocampal formation are involved in both _________ and _________ pathways | perforant, alvear |
| The dentate gyrus is a _________ structure due to the penetration of _________ vessels | toothed, subarachnoid |
| the dentate gyrus is made of three layers of _________ cells, and is a component of the _________ pathway | granule, perforant |
| Hippocampus proper has mainly 3 layers of _________ cells | pyramidal |
| 4 divisions of hippocampus proper | CA1-4 |
| CA1 receives input from _________. sends output to _________ | CA3, subiculum |
| CA2 is often _________ | neglected |
| CA3 receives input from _________ _________ | dentate gyrus |
| CA4 is the only division that has _________ cells, and a hilum where lots of info will leave | granule |
| Alveus of hippocampal proper is along structures _________ to _________ | CA2-CA4 |
| The alveus lines the _________ surface of the hippocampus proper, contains _________ afferents and efferents, is a component of the _________ pathway | superior, myelinated, alvear |
| THe fimbriae connects the _________ to the _________ | hippocampus, fornix |
| origin of the alvear pathway is the _________, which is formed by 3-5 layers of _________ cells and is adjacent to hippocampus proper. Below dentate gyrus | subiculum, pyramidal |
| The amygdala is the main nucleus for _________ responses, mainly _________ and _________ | emotional, fear, function |
| central nucelus of the amygdala is for _________ _________ | emotional response |
| basolateral nucleus of amygdala activates _________ _________ | central nucelus |
| The _________ connect the fimbriae to the mamillary bodies, and is associated with the thalamus | fornix |
| the fornix has _________ structures, and is composed of _________, _________, _________ | bilateral, crus, body, columns |
| The mamillary bodies are part of the _________, sending info to the _________ nucleus of the _________ | thalamus, anterior, thalamus |
| Anterior thalamic nuclei borders the _________ _________, sends information to the _________ _________ | interventricular foramen, cingulate gyrus |
| Anterior of cingulate gyrus is associated with _________ | emotion (Amygdala) |
| The posterior of the cingulate gyrus merges with the _________ gyrus, associated with _________ | parahippocampal, memory |
| Basal forebrain has roles in _________ and _________ | memory, sleep |
| basal nucleus of Meynert has _________ of cell bodes, with _________ endings that cover the cortex, hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic structures | cluster, cholinergic |
| 3 limbic system pathways | perforant, alvear, papez circuit |
| ALvear pathway is within the _________ | hippocampus |
| papez circuit _________ hippocampal formaiton | exits |
| Does th eperforant pathway leave the hippocampal formation? | No, intrahippocampal loop |
| Perforant Pathway | Subuculum, entorhinal cortex, dentate gyrus, CA3 to fimbriaw or CA1, CA1 back to subiculum |
| Alvear pathway | Subiculum, alveus, fibbriae |
| Papez circuit | cingulate/paraH gyrus to neocortex or hippocampus, hippocampus to fimbriae, fornix, mamillary bodies, ant. N thalamus |
| Anterograde amnesia results from hippocampal damage - the inability to form new _________ memories | declarative |
| Anterograde amnesia from amygdalar damage - inability to form new _________ memories | non-declarative |
| Retroograde amnesia comes from _________ damage, is the inability to _________ recently stored long term memories | hippocampal, recall |
| Damage to caudate, putamen, globus pallidus of corpus striatum affects | memory - motor planning |
| Damage to nucleus accumbens impacts _________ and _________, specifically _________ _________ accompanying _________ | memory, emotion, motor movement, emotions |
| Damage to medial cerebellum, flocculus, vermis affects _________ | conditioning |
| Damage to lateral cerebellum impacts | procedural memories |
| 3 pathways from the amygdala | Stria terminalis, amygdalofugal, lateral olfactory tract |
| Stria terminalis amygdala pathway | info to hypothalamus & septal nuclei |
| Amygdalofugal pathway | more direct than stria terminalis, thalamus and hypothalamus |
| lateral olfactory tract pathway | interactions between amygdala and olfactory bulb |
| Limbic cortical areas play role in the _________ of emotion | expression |
| sensory cortical areas play roles in _________ emotion | perceiving |
| VM prefrontal cortex and hypothalamus have _________ and _________ reactions that accompany emotions | autonomic, visceral |
| Muscle spindles are located _________ _________, detect change in _________ of muscle | within muscle, length |
| Golgi tendon organs are located in _________ _________ tendons, detect the change in _________ of muscle | skeletal muscle, tension |
| Dorsal column system is responsible for _________ | mechanosensation |
| Convoluted mechanosensory pathways from body to cerebellum for _________ _________ | unconscious proprioception |
| pathway for mechanosensation for the head from the _________ nucleus, relayed by the _________ nucleus to SI | trigeminal, ventroposterior |
| Somatosensory association cortex receives input from _________ and _________ | SI, SII |
| Which association cortex helps perceive your body in space | higher somatosensory |
| Damage to _________ side of the interior parietal gyrus causes left spatial neglect | rightt |
| damage to _________ side of temporal-parietal junction causes left spatial neglect | right |
| is left spatial neglect a visual deficit? | NO, patients ignore the left side of their body as well as the space it occupies |
| When stimulating the right side of the angular gyrus, patients experience | out of body |
| LEft parietal cortex oversees attention to _________ of the body | only the right side |
| right parietal cortex oversees attention to _________ of the body | both sides |
| why does a lesion to the right parietal cortex give rise to contralateral neglect? | left side has lost its only surveillance |
| Right angular gyrus integrates _________ information, creates the minds _________ of the body | visual, representation |
| 3 main tracts in the anterolateral pathway | spinothalamic, spinoreticular, spinomesencephalic |
| spinothalamic anterolateral pathway | discriminative (how and where) of pain and temperatureq |
| Spinoreticular anterolateral pathway | emotional and arousal aspects of pain |
| spinomesencephalic anterolateral pathway | modulation of pain |
| _____________ = mechanosensation + pain/temp sensation | somatosensation |
| Nociceptors are specialized _____________ neurons that respond to _____________ stimuli by sending signals to the brain | sensory, noxious |
| Noxious means it is damaging to _____________ | tissue |
| Nociceptive pain is normal, falls under _____________ threshold | high |
| Inflammatory pain is _____________, under low threshold | normal |
| Neuropathic pain is _____________ damage, with low threshold | neuronal |
| Dysfunction pain has no _____________ _____________ | identifiable cause |
| Pain is the unpleasant _____________ and _____________ sensation associated with tissue damage | discriminative, emotional |
| How many TRP receptors in temperature sensation? | 6 specialized channels |
| Some free nerve endings have channels with receptors that open in response to _____________ range, depolarizing the nerve | temperature |
| Some TRP receptors respond to _____________ or heat, so chili peppers are sensed as hot | capsaicin |
| Pain receptors also open due to _____________ and _____________ | deformation, inflammation |
| First pain is relatively _____________ conducting Ad fibers mediate a _____________ and _____________ pain | fast, sharp, localized |
| Second pain is relatively _____________ conducting C fibers which mediate a _____________, _____________ and _____________-lasting pain | slow, delayed, diffuse and longer- |
| Slow conducting = _____________ + narrow diameter | unmyelinated |
| First pain can be blocked by | crushing the nerve |
| Second pain can be blocked by | Na+ channel antagonists |
| Affective pain can occur over the long-term, due to _____________ | inflammation |
| Inflammation promotes constant _____________ along "second" pain pathways | traffic |
| Non-painful stimuli can, over time, become painful, causing _____________ and _____________ | hyperalgesia, sensitization |
| Emotional pain is perceived by the _____________ that is not primary somatosensory cortex | neocortex |
| The gate theory of second pain is that there is an interaction between _____________ reception and _____________ | pain reception, mechanoreception |
| Allodynia is whereby a completely _____________ stimulus causes _____________ pain | non-noxious, extreme |
| Allodynia seems to result from the developent of _____________ central pathways being activated by the surviving afferent nerves | altered |
| Neuropathic pain is chronic pain that arises following direct injury to the _____________ | nerves |
| What is phantom limb pain? | brain gets pain messages from the pathway that originally carried impulses from the missing limb |
| Can patients with congenital limb deficiency experience phantom limb pain | rare, but yes |
| Referred pain is pain perceived on the body surface at a site _____________ from the actual site of injury/inflammation | distant |
| Pain from _____________ is commonly referred to the surface of the body | viscera |
| Dorsal horn neurons receive input from _____________ _____________ neurons from both surface and viscera | primary afferent |
| Descending pathways from cortex/hypothal/amygdala send relays through PAG in RF, dampening ascending pain activity in the _____________ _____________ | spinothalamic tract |
| Opioids are important in the _____________ _____________ of pain | central regulation |
| Placebo-related beliefs can have _____________ effects, like pain reduction | physiological |
Created by:
esavoy