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A&P ch 17,18,19
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| During a heartbeat, what two heart sounds can be distinguished by listening to the thorax with a stethoscope? | described as lub-dup |
| the basic rythmn of the heart souns is lub-dup, pause, lub-dup...what does the pause indicate? | period when the heart is relaxing |
| what do the heart sounds indicate? | closing of the heart valves |
| when the heart sounds lub-dup occurs, what 2 valves are closing? | 1st sound: AV valves close 2nd sound: SL valves close |
| the 1st heart sound signifies the beginning of what? | ventricular systole |
| the 2nd heart sound signifies the beginning of what? | ventricular diastole |
| Its possible to distinguish the individual valve/heart sounds by listening to 4 specific regions. What are they? (valves: aortic,pulmonary,tricuspid,and mitral) | aortic:listen to right of sternum on pecks, pulmonary: listen to left of sternum on pecks, tricuspid: listen to right under peck, mitral: listen to left under peck |
| what are the valves? | atrioventricular valves (AV) and semilunar valves (SL) |
| what are the two atrioventricular valves? | trucuspid and mitral or bicuspid valves |
| what are the two semilunar valves? | aortic and pulmonary |
| what do the atrioventricular valves do? | prevent backflow into the aorta when the ventricles are contracting |
| what do the semilunar valves do? | guard the bases of the aorta and the pulmonary and prevent backflow into the ventricles |
| When blood returns to the heart and begins filling the atria, what 3 events occur? | blood puts pressure on the AV valves forcing them open, AV valve flaps hang limply in ventricle chambers, and blood flows through the valves into ventricls |
| What 3 events occur when the ventricles contract and pressure inside the ventricles begins to rise? | the SL valves are forced open, the SL valve cusps flatten against the arterial walls and blood rushes through the SL valves |
| what is a hemorrhage? | excessive discharge of blood from blood vessels |
| what are the causes of a hemorrhage? | injury, bleeding disorders, hemophilia, and leukimia |
| what is hypoxia? | inadequate oxygen content |
| what causes hypoxia in Erthropoietin (EPO) formation? | reduced # of red blood cells due to hemorrhage or excessive RBC destruction |
| during leukemia, a cancerous condition involving white cells, what are the most common causes of death? | internal hemorrhage and overwhelming infections |
| In thrombocytopenia, condition where of circulating platelets are deficient, what causes petechiae, small spots on the skin? | widespread hemorrhage resulting from normal movement |
| what are the ventricles? | actual pumps of the heart |
| what does the right ventricle form in the heart? | most of the hearts anterior surface |
| what does the left ventricle form in the heart? | the posterior inferior surface and heart apex |
| where does the right venticle pump blood into and where is the blood routed to? | pulmonary trunk, it routes blood to the lungs and pulmonary arteries |
| where does the left ventricle eject blood to? | the aorta |
| what is the difference between the left and right ventricle walls? | the left ventricle walls are thicker because it must pump blood throughout the body against gravity |
| what is heart block? | ventricles recieve only some and no pacing impulses due to AV node damage |
| what occurs in total heart block? | no impulses get through and ventricles beat an intrinsic rate which is to slow for adequate circulation |
| what occurs in partial heart block? | only some atrial impulses reach the ventricles |
| what is a treatment for heart block and how does it work? | artificial pacemakers which work like real heart and send info to doctor via telephone |
| what is an electrocardiogram (ECG) | graphic record of heart activity |
| does an ECG trace a single action potential? | no, it measures the sum of all electro-chemical activity in the myocardium at any moment |
| an ECG has 3 distinguishable waves or deflections. what are they? | P waves, QRS complex, and T waves |
| how long does the p wave last? | .08 sec |
| what wave results from movement of the depolarization wave from the SA node through the atria? | the P wave |
| How long after the p wave contracts, does the atria contract? | .1 sec |
| what wave results from ventricular depolarization and comes before ventricular contraction? | the QRS complex |
| why does the QRS complex have a complicated shape? | because the paths of the depolarization wave change continously, producing changes in direction |
| what is the average duration of the QRS complex? and does it change? | .08 sec and yes it changes depending on its size relative to the other ventricle |
| what wave is caused by ventricular repolarization? | T wave |
| what is the duration of the T wave? | .16 sec |
| is repolarization slower or faster than depolarization and this speed causes the t wave to what? | its slower which makes the T wave longer and shorter then the QRS complex |
| what are the 3 interval or segments involving the ECG waves? | P-Q or P-R interval, S-T segment and Q-T interval |
| what are the major vessels of the heart? | pulmonary veins, aorta, vena cava, and pulmonary arteries |
| right atrium recieves deoxygenated blood through what three sources? | superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, and coronary sinus |
| what does the superior vena cava do? | returns blood to the heart from body regions that are superior to the diaphragm |
| what does the inferior vena cava do? | returns blood to the heart from body regions that are below the diaphragm |
| what does the coronary sinus do? | collects blood draining from the myocardium |
| how many pulmonary veins are there and what do they do? | there are 4 that enter the left atrium and they transport blood from the lungs to the heart |
| what is the largest artery in the body? | the aorta |
| what is the function of the aorta? | it carries blood from the left side of the heart to the arteries of all limbs and organs except the lungs |
| what is the function of the pulmonary arteries? | it carries venous blood from the right ventricle to the lungs |
| what are the chordae tendineae/heart strings and what do they do? | tiny white fibrous cords that connect the valves to papillary muscles |
| what do papillary muslces do? | contract and prevent valves from opening as pressure increases |
| the chordae tendineae and papillary muscles work together to what? | anchor the valve flaps in there closed positions |
| what is angina pectoris? | classic chest pain that occurs when tissues are deprived of oxygen |
| what causes angina pectoris? | stress induced spasms of coronary arteries and increased physical demand on the heart |
| during development of the heart what are the two lung bypass fetal shunts? | foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus |
| what does the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus do? | allows blood entering the right atrium to bypass the pulmonary circuit and the collapsed nonfunctional fetal lungs |
| where is the ductus atertiosus located? | between the pulmonary trunk and the aorta |
| during fetal development what connects the 2 atria? | foramen ovale |
| during development, when do the lung bypass fetal shunts close and what does this signify? | at or shortly after birth and closing completes the seperation between the right and left sides of the heart |
| in an adult heart what is the remnant of the foramen ovale? | fossa ovalis |
| in an adult heart what is the remnant of the ductus ateriosus? | ligamentum arterisom |
| what occurs during the diastole phase of the cardiac cycle? | the atria and ventricles are relaxed and the heart fills with blood |
| what occurs during the systole phase of the cardiace cycle? | the ventricles contract and pump blood into the arteries |
| give summary of 4 events that occur in diastole phase? | AV valves open, SA node contracts causing atrial contraction, atria empty blood into ventricles, SL valves close preventing backflow into the atria |
| give summary of 3 events that occur in the systole phase? | ventricles contract, AV valves close, SL valves open, and blood flows to either pulmonary artery or aorta |
| what is end diastolic volume (EDV)? | volume of blood in each ventricle at the end ventricular diastole |
| what is end systolic volume (ESV)? | volume of blood remaining in each ventricle at the end of ventricular systole |
| what is the period during ventricular systole called when the ventricles are completely closed and the blood volume remains constant? | isovolumetric contraction phase |
| what is the cardiac cycle? | cylce of events that occur when blood flows through the heart during one complete heatbeat |
| what are the 5 hormones that regulate blood pressure? | epinephrine and norepinephrine, angiostensin 2, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) |
| what is vasocontriction? | increase in blood pressure |
| what is vasodilation? | decrease in blood pressure |
| what organ produces epinephrine and norepinephrine? | the adrenal medulla |
| what does epinephrine and norepinephrine? | causes generalized vasoconstriction and increase in cardiace output |
| how is angiostensin 2 produced? | produced by kidney release of renin |
| what does angiostensin 2 do? | causes vasoconstriction |
| what does atrial natriuretic peptide do? | causes blood volume to decline and generalized vasodilation |
| what does antidiuretic hormone do? | cause intense vasocontriction in cases of extremely low blood pressure |
| what do the blood vessels of the body do? | they form a delivery system of structures that begin and end at the heart |
| what are the three major types of blood vessels? | arteries, capillaries, and veins |
| what are the three wall layers of arteries and veins and what is the central space that they surround? | tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa, the central opening is the lumen |
| which layer is the tunica intima and what type of tissue does it contain that surrounds the lumen of all vessels? | it is the innermost tunic and endothelium lines the walls of all lumens |
| which layer is the tunica media and what is it made out of? | it is the middle layer and it is made of smooth muscle cells and sheets of elastin |
| what system controls vasoconstriction (reduction) and vasodilation (increase)of the lumen in the the tunica media? | vasomotor nerve fibers of the ANS |
| which layer is the tunica externa or adventitia and what it is largely composed of? | it is the outermost layer and is composed of collagen fibers |
| the tunica externa contains a system of tiny blood vessels that nourish the more external tissues of the blood vessel wall. what is this called? | the vasa vasorum or vessel of all vessels |
| what do the arteries do? | they usually carry oxygenated blood away from the heart |
| when is the only time that arteries do not carry oxygenated blood? | in pulmonary circulation and in umbilical vessels of the fetus |
| what are the three groups of arteries? | elastic arteries, muscular ateries and arterioles |
| what are arterioles? | smallest type of artery |
| what do the arterioles do? | they lead into capillary beds |
| Minute to minute blood flow INTO the capillary beds is determined by what? | arteriole diameter (vasodilation and vasoconstriction) |
| what is the structure of small arterioles? | they are a single layer of smooth muscle cells that spiral around the endothelium lining |
| what are capillaries? | they are the smallest blood vessels |
| what is the structure of the capillaries walls? | thin wall that consists of a one cell thick tunica intima |
| Pericytes help stabilize and control permeability in the walls of which blood vessel? | the capillaries |
| the lumen diameter of a capillary is so small that only one what can pass at a time? | one red blood cell can pass |
| the capillaries are in all tissues EXCEPT which 4? | the cartilage, epithelia, cornea and lens of the eye |
| Given their location and struture, capillaries ideally suited for what function? | exchange of materials like gas and nutrients between the blood and the interstitial fluid |
| what are the three types of capillaries? | continuous, fenestrated and sinusoidal capillaries |
| what are capillary beds? | interwoven networks of capillaries that form microcirculation between arterioles and venules |
| When do venules form? | form when capillary beds unite |
| Are venules easilly permeated, explain? | Yes they are more like capillaries then veins, white blood cells are able to move easily from the bloodstream through their walls |
| The smallest venules, Postcapillary venules consist of what? | endothelium and few pericytes |
| The larger venules consist of what? | one or two layers of smooth musle cells |
| When do veins form? | form when venules join |
| what do the veins do? | carry poorly oxygenated blood from the capillary beds toward the heart |
| what are the differences between veins and arteries? (3 dif) | vein walls are thinner, lumens are larger then arteries and blood pressure is lower then in arteries |
| which blood vessel has a thin tunica media with little smooth muscle or elastin and the tunica externa is the heaviest wall layer | veins |
| why are veins called capacitance vessels and blood reservoirs? | because with there large lumens and thin walls up to 65% of the bodies blood supply can be found in the veins at any time |
| Why can the vein walls be thinner then arterial walls without the danger of bursting? | because the blood pressure in veins is lower then in ateries |
| Although the veins have low blood pressure, they have two structural adaptions that ensure the return of blood to the heart. What are the 2 adaptions and how do they help? | large lumen diameter that offers little resistence to blood flow and vavles that prevent blood from flowing backward |
| what are the venous sinuses and give one example? | they are flattened veins with extremely thin walls, an example is the coronary sinus |
| what is the hepatic portal system? | circulation where the hepatic portal vein carries nutrient rich blood to the liver tissues for processing |
| In the "treatment" process of the hepatic portal system, whats the hepacytes function and Phagocytic cells? | the hepatocytes process nutrients and toxins and phagocytic cells get rid of bacteria and other foriegn matter in the blood |
| what 3 major vessels join to form the hepatic portal vein? | superior mesenteric vein, splenic vein, and inferior mesenteric vein |
| what is the pathway of the hepatic portal system? | digestive organs to hepatic portal vein to the liver to hepatic veins to vena cava to the heart |
| When blood pressure decreases the kidneys release renin which stimulate the release of angiotensin 2. Angiotensin 2 increases blood pressure in three main ways what are they? | 1 potent vasoconstrictor 2 stimulates adrenal cortex to release aldosterone 3 stimulates posterior pituitary to release ADH |
| To increase blood pressure Angiotensin 2 stimulates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone. What is aldosterone and why does it help to increase blood pressure? | it is a hormone that enhances renal reabsorption of sodium, it helps because as sodium moves into the bloodstream water flows and as result blood volume is conserved |
| what is systolic pressure? | blood pressure in the arteries when the heart muscle is contracting |
| what is diastolic pressure? | the lowest atrial blood pressure during the cardiac cycle; reflects relaxation in a heart chamber |
| what is pulse pressure? | the difference systolic and diastolic pressure |
| when the skin surface is exposed to heat or body temp rises due to vigorous excercise hypothalamic signals reduce vasomotor stimulation of the skin vessesls and what occurs as a result? | as a result warm blood flushes into the capillary beds and heat radiates from the skin surface |
| vasodilation of the arterioles is enhanced when we sweat because a protein that is present produces what and what does it do? | produces bradykinn which stiumlates the vessels endothielial cells to release the vasodilator NO |
| As temperature gets colder and body temp drops, superficial skin vessels constrict and what happens to the warm blood? | warm blood is shunted deeper to more vital organs |
| what is pulmonary circulation?? | group of blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood to and from the lungs; serves as gas exchange |
| what do the pulmonary arteries do in pulmonary circulation? | carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs where blood gives up CO2 and picks up O2 |
| what do the pulmonary veins do in pulmonary circulation? | carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to heart to the left atria |
| what is the pathway for blood in pulmonary circulation? | it moves from the right ventricle to pulmonary trunk to pulmonary arteries to lungs to pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart |
| what is the normal blood pressure for infants? | 90/55 |
| what is normal blood pressure for adults and what is the systolic pressure and diastolic pressure? | 120/80 or below, systolic is between 110-140 and diastolic is between 70-80 |
| what is normal blood pressure for elderly and what does this bp cause in younger people? | 150/90 causes hypertension in younger people |
| what is hypotension what is the systolic pressure? | low blood pressure, systolic pressure is below 100 |
| what may cause hypotension? | caused by a long life and old age without any cardio illness |
| what are three ex. of hypotension? | orthostatic hypo, chronic hypo, and acute hypo |
| what is orthostatic hypotension? | temporary low bp and dizziness from suddenly rising from sitting or reclining position |
| what is chronic hypotension and what are the two things it is a warning sign for? | hint of poor nutrition; it is warning sign for addisons disease and hypothyroidism |
| what is acute hypotension who is it a threat to? | important sign of circulatory shock threat to patients undergoing surgery and patients in intensive care units who may have been in accident |
| what is hypertension and what is the atrial pressure? | high blood pressure with atrial pressure of 140/90 or higher |
| hypertension may be transient adaptions during what 3 things? | fever, physical exertion, and emotional upset |
| hypertension is often persistent in which people? | obese people |
| Prolonged hypertension is the major cause of what 4 things? | heart failure, vascular disease, renal failure, and stroke |
| about 90% of people have what type of hypertension? | primary of essential hypertension |
| what are the 7 causes of primary of essential hypertension? | heridity, diet, obesity, age, stress, diabetes mellitus, stress, and smoking |
| what type of hypertenstion accounts for 10% of people? | secondary hypertension |
| what is the cause of secondary hypertension? | identifiable disorders such as kidney disease |
| what is the velocity of blood flow? | the speed of blood flow in the body? |
| the velocity of blood flow changes as blood travels through what? | the systemic circulation |
| velocity of blood flow is inversely related to the cross sectional area give an ex of this? | swift river entering into a large lake becomes much slower because the cross sectional area of the lake is much larger |
| the velocity of blood flow is fastest in what, slowest in what, and increases again in what? relate the structures to the example of the river and lake flow) | fastest in the aorta (the river), slowest in the capillaries(the lake), and increases again in the veins (the river again) |
| the velocity of blood flow is slow in the capillaries because it allows adequate time for what? | for exchange between blood and tissues |
| what is the pH of blood? | between 7.35-7.45 |
| what are the ABO blood groups and they are named based on what? | AB, A, B, O named based the presence of agglutinogens/antigens |
| can there be the same antigens/agglutinogens and antibodies/agglutinins present in a blood group? | no because antibodies act against the antigens |
| which blood group is the universal donor and why? | O because it has no antigens and both anti a and anti b antibodies |
| which blood group is the universal recipient and why? | AB because it has both A and B antigens and no antibodies |
| what are the two antibodies/agglutinins? | anti A and Anti B |
| what do the antibodies/agglutinins do? 2 | act against antigens especially bacteria and red blood cells carrying ABO antigens; causes agglutination (clumping together) |
| Are people born with antibodies/agglutinins? | no they begin to form at two months of age |
| how do you know what type of anitbodies/agglutinins a blood group has? | the anitbody is opposite from the blood type ex. B group contains anti A agglutinins |
| what are the formed elements of blood? | erthrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets |
| what are erthrocytes? | red blood cells |
| what is the shape of erthrocytes? | shaped like biconcave discs-flattend with depressed centers |
| do erthrocytes contain a nucleus or organelles? | no they are anucleate and contain no organelles |
| erthrocytes are filled with hemoglobin for what? | gas transport (oxygen and carbon dioxide) |
| in erthrocytes which plasma membrane protein provides flexibility to change shape as necessary? | spectrin |
| erthrocytes are the major factor contributing to what? | blood viscosity |
| what four structural characteristics of erthrocytes contribute to gas transport? | its biconcave shape, its 97% hemoglobin, lack mitochondria and generate ATP by anaerobic mechanisms |
| what are the to things that make up the hemoglobin structure in erthrocytes? | protein globin and heme which is a pigment that bind with globin |
| in erthrocytes the iron atom in heme bind with how many O2 molecules and how many O2 molecules does hemoglobin transport | iron atom binds with 1 O2 molecule and hemoglobin binds with 4 O2 molecules |
| erthrocytes are produced through what process? | erthropoiesis |
| what are the two erthrocytes disorders? | anemia-not enough, polycythemia- too many |
| what are leukocytes? | white blood cells |
| do leukocytes contain a nucleus and organelles | yes they contain both |
| what is the leukocytes shape? | spherical |
| what are leukocytes crucial for? | defense against disease |
| what are the two types of leukocytes? | granulocytes and agranulocytes |
| what are the three types of granulocytes? | neutrophils, eosinphil, and basophil |
| what are the two types of agranulocytes? | lymphocytes and monocytes |
| leukocytes are produced through what process? | leukopoiesis |
| what are the two types of leukocyte disorders? | leukopenia-not enough, leukemias-cancerous includes acute and chronic leukemia |
| what are platelets? | cytoplasmic fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes |
| in blood smears platelets exhibit what type of outer and inner granule region? | blue staining outer region and inner regions stains purple |
| in platelets the granules contain 5 different chemicals that act in the clotting process what are they? | serotonin, CA2+, enzymes, ADP, and platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) |
| When a blood vessel ruptures platelets are essential to the plasma clotting process why? | they form a temp plug that helps seal the break |
| In platelets the hormone thrombopoietin is important because it does what? | regulates platelet formation |
| do platelets contain a nucleus | no they are anucleate |
| Platelets circulate freely and are kept mobile and inactive by molecules secreted by endothelial cells lining the blood vessels. What are these two molecules? | nitric oxide and prostacyclin |
| what is coagulation or blood clotting and how does it reinforce the platelet plug? | set of reactions where blood is transformed from liquid to gel and this clot reinforces the platelet plug with fibrin threads forming a fibrin mesh |
| Why is the pathway in coagulation called intrinsic? | because tissue factors needed for clotting are found WITHIN the blood |
| why is the pathway in coagulation called extrinsic? | because tissue factor needed for clotting is found OUTSIDE of blood |
| what are the sequence of events for clot formation? | Intrinsic or Extrinsic pathways produce prothrombin activator, activator changes prothrombin to thrombin, and thrombin changes fibrinogen to fibrin, fibrin forms clot |
| what is sickle cell anemia? | chronic fatal anemia that produces defective gene codes for abnormal hemoglobin (HbS) |
| In sickle cell anemia what happens to the erthrocyte? | it causes RBC's to to become sickle shaped-looks crescent shaped |
| what causes sickle cell anemia? | caused from a single amino acid change in the beta chain of hemoglobin |
| sickle cell anemia is predominant in which race? | african americans |
| what are the physical results of sickle cell anemia? | joints are very painful because there is low oxygen content |
| what is erthyroblastosis fetalis? | fatal disease in infants that occurs when a pregnant women has Rh- and the child she is carrying is Rh+ which means there blood is incompatible |
| what happens in erthyroblastosis fetalis? | becuase of the incompatibility of blood mothers immune system launches immune response against babies RBCs destroying them |
| what can happen to an infant with erthroblastosis fetalis? 3 things | severe anemia, brain damage, and death |
| what has to be done to an infant with erthroblastosis fetalis so they wont suffer? | transfusion of blood BEFORE birth and one or two transfusions after birth |
| when a mother has a child with erthroblastosis fetalis what drug is given to her before or shortly after birth to block her immune response and prevent sensitization? | RhoGAM |
| what artery supplies the kidneys? | renal artery |
| what artery supplies the heart? | coronary arteries |
| what arteries supply the arm? 5 | subclavian, axillary, brachial, radial, and ulna |
| which artery supply the head and neck? | carotid arteries |
| which artey supply the gonads? | gondal artery |
| which artery supplies the GI tract? | mesenteric arteries |
| which artery supplies the liver and gall bladder? | the hepatic artery |
| which arteries supply the legs? 5 | iliac, femoral, popliteal, tibial , and arcuate |
| In leukocytes what is the neurtrophils funtction? | phagocytize bacteria |
| in leukocytes what is the eosinphil function? 2 | kill parasytic worms, plays a complex role in allergy and asthma |
| in leukocytes what is the basophil function? 2 | release histamine of inflammation and contain an anticoagulant called heparin |
| in leukocytes what is the lymphocytes function? | fight off inffections by direct cell attack or antibodies |
| in leukocytes what is the monocyte function? | phagocytosis |
Created by:
natbrittain