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VN02 Revision
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What controls the penetrating power of the xray beam? | kV |
| What does the mA have an effect on? | the density of the radiograph |
| what does mA mean? | the amount of x-rays which are produced |
| what does the overall blackness of the radiograph mean? | the density |
| what does the difference between the shades of white and black mean? | the contrast |
| what exposure factor controls the contrast? | kV |
| which exposure factor controls density? | mAs |
| Which type of metal is the filament made up of? | tungsten |
| what type of metal is the target made up of in the xray machine? | tungsten |
| which metal is used in the filter across the window in the tube head? | aluminium |
| doses of radiation are.... | cumulative |
| sources of x-ray radiation exposure are.... | leakage from tube head, primary beam, scatter radiation |
| scatter radiation is also known as | compton scatter |
| what is the MPD for the iris of the eye according to the ionising radiation regulations 2017? | 20 mSv |
| what is the MPD for a 17 year old employee in the vet practice | 15 mSv |
| what is the MPD for a 18 or over year old employee in the vet practice | 50 mSv |
| how long must you heat up the woods lamp before use? | 5-10 minutes |
| what is the most appropriate transducer size for a large dogs abdomen | 5 |
| Safety features to limit radiation (environment) | lead lined doors, controlled area, lights and warnings |
| safety features to limit radiation (x-ray machine) | LBD, aluminium filter across tube head, lead casing on outside of tube head |
| features of cooling down inside of the x-ray machine | cooling fins, rotating anode and mineral oil |
| TLD use? | to monitor amount of radiation |
| where are lithium flouride crystals found? | in dosemeter badges |
| RPS | works in practice, carries out local rules and maintains in clinic radiation safety |
| RPA | works outside of practice, produces local rules and is there for support |
| protons | have a positive charge |
| neutrons | have no electrical charge |
| electrons | have a negative charge |
| the cathode is | negatively charged |
| what is the function of the tungsten filament | produces electrons in the process called thermionic emission |
| what is produced at the xray target? | x-rays and heat!!! |
| what is the glass envelope? | vaccuum |
| copper stem | holds the tungsten target |
| the law which effects focal film distance is... | Inverse square law |
| what is the focal spot? | area on target which is bombarded with electrons |
| the smaller the focal spot? | the clearer the image, smaller the image, less penumbra |
| the larger the focal spot? | blurrier image, larger view on image, more penumbra |
| actual focal spot is... | 22 |
| x-rays with very long wavelengths have which type of energy? | low |
| x-rays with short wavelengths have which type of energy? | high |
| what is the purpose of reducing the LBD | minimise distortion of image, reduce scatter, reduce unnecessary radiation to staff and pet |
| types of xray machine | fixed, portable, mobile |
| milliamperes | the current that heats the filament |
| mA x secs = | mAs |
| It is normal to multiply | the mA x seconds |
| If the kV is increased .... | the the electrons move faster across the tube head and therefore hit the x-ray target at a greater speed |
| the kV controls the .. | speed of the electrons, and therefore, the penetrating power of the x-ray beam |
| if the mAs is halved... | the kV should be increased by 10 to compensate |
| if the mAs is doubled... | the kV should be decreased by 10 to compensate |
| if the kV is increased by 10... | the mAs should be halved to compensate |
| If the kV is decreased by 10... | the mAs should be doubled to compensate |
| Bacteria are... | unicellular, cell wall present, no true membrane-bound nucleus |
| Viruses are... | non-cellular, no cell wall present and no nucleus |
| Fungi are... | unicellular or multicellular, cell wall is present with membrane-bound nucleus |
| Protozoa are... | Unicellular, no cell wall and a membrane bound nucleus |
| Bacteria's nucleic acids? | DNA and RNA |
| how do bacteria reproduce? | asexually by binary fission |
| Viruses contain which nucleic acids? | DNA OR RNA |
| how do viruses reproduce? | replication only within another living cell |
| how do viruses gain nutrition? | Obligate parasites |
| How do fungi reproduce? | Asexually and sexually by spores, budding in yeast |
| Which nucleic acids make up fungi? | DNA and RNA |
| which nucleic acids make up protozoa | DNA and RNA |
| what is meant by incubation period? | the time lag of recognising clinical signs from initial infection. |
| How can virus particles be viewed? | electron microscope only |
| what are the three types of bacterium? | rod-shaped, spherical and spiral |
| Bacili bacterial | rod shaped or cylindrial |
| cocci | spherical |
| what kills spores? | autoclaving at 121 degrees, repeated steaming (tyndallization) and dry heat (160 for atleast 2 hours) |
| what is a parasite? | an organism advantageously living off its host |
| ectoparasite | parasites which live on or burrow into the surface of the host's epidermis |
| endoparasite | Parasites which live inside in the internal organs of the host |
| definitive host | primary host in which the parasit develops into life stages |
| intermediate host | the parasite can undergo some stage(s) of its life cycle, but not without sexual reproduction |
| vector | an organism such as a tick or blood feeding fly that transmits a parasite |
| myiasis | invasion of living tissue by the larvae of dipteran flies (blowflies) |
| how are sarcoptes scabiei diagnosed? | skin scrapes or blood test |
| how are notoedres diagnosed? | skin scrapes |
| how is cnemidocoptes diagnosed? | skin scrapes |
| how is demodex diagnosed? | skin scrapes or hair plucks |
| how is cheyletiella diagnosed? | coat brushings or sellotape strips (adult mite and/or eggs) |
| how is otodectes cynotis diagnosed? | ear wax sampling |
| which is a normal parasite to find in hair follicles and sebacous glands (which is usually harmless?) | demodex |
| cestodes are... | tapeworms |
| nematodes are... | roundworms |
| trematodes are... | flukes |
| what are the main benefits of intensifying screens? | allow much lower mAs settings, prolonged use of the x-ray tube, increased radiographic contrast |
| what must be done when using a grid? | grid factor x mAs |
| grid ratio | The ratio of the height of the lead slats to the width of the spacing |
| scatter may be reduced by | collimating the light beam diaghram, keeping kV as low as possible, grid, lead mat underneath the cassette |
| parallel grid | Lead strips parallel to each other and at right angles to the surface of the grid. |
| focused grid | Lead strips angled progressively away from the centre of the grid. |
| psuedo-focused grid | The height of the lead strips progressively reduces towards the edge of the grid |
| cross hatched grid | Parallel lead strips at 90º to each other. |
| Potter bucky (moving grid) | Positioned beneath the x ray table. It moves rapidly when the exposure is taken |
| focal film distance | distance between the target (focal spot) and the surface of the X ray film. |
| what is the FFD normally? | 100cm |
| what will changing the FFD do? | A variation in this distance will affect the quantity of X rays reaching the film. |
| if the FFD is doubled, the intensity of the light beam will | reduce to a quarter |
| if the FFD is halved, the intensity of the light beam will | increase by a factor of 4. |
| if the FFD is changed, the mAs.... | must be changed to compensate |
| increasing the FFD will have what effect on the resulting radiograph? | increased sharpness but the mAs MUST be increased. |
| If the distance is halved... | the mAs should be divided 4 |
| If the distance is doubled... | the mAs should be x 4 |
| density refers to ... | the overall blackness of the image |
| contrast refers to ... | the difference between the shades of black, grey and white |
| the exposure factor which effects density is ... | mAs |
| the exposure factor which effects contrast is ... | kV |
| High mAs = | high density, too dark |
| Low mAs = | low density, too pale |
| High contrast | '' soot and whitewash'' - a film with only a few shades of black/white |
| low contrast | ''flat film'' - a film with an overall grey appearance |
| if the contrast is too high ( soot and whitewash)... | the kV is too high |
| if the contrast is too low (flat film) | the kV is too low |
| definition /sharpness | refers to overall sharpness of the image |
| factors effecting definition... | -Patient movement, OFD, FFD, films and screens, focal spot size |
| geometric blurring around the edge of a radiograph is called | Penumbra |
| digital imaging... | Produces immediate computer images without the need for chemicals or dark room |
| digital imaging allows : | Magnification Annotation Measurement of subject Digital archiving Manipulation of image Reduced radiation exposure Immediate image Sharing of information Rotation of image Removal of unwanted information |
| computed radiography | Uses a cassette similar to conventional plates, and the image is produced in the same way as the traditional method. |
| computed radiography works by ... | The X-ray film is replaced by an Imaging Plate (IP), containing Phosphor. The phosphors luminesce and the digital image is produced |
| direct digital radiography | Use x ray sensitive plates to produce an image without the use of a cassette |
| what are the two types of direct digital radiography? | Flat panel system Charged coupled device system |
| flat panel system | A detector panel is used to convert x-ray energy into light and then to a digital signal |
| charged coupled device system | A fluorescent screen is placed under the x-ray table, which is linked to the X-ray machine. The x-rays are converted to light via a scintilating screen |
| automatic processing | It converts the latent image into a manifest (visible) image |
| what colour should the walls be in a processing room | white |
| The processing tanks must be maintained at a temperature of .. | 28 |
| what is the order of the automatic processing? | developer, fixer, wash, dryer |
| what does the developer do? | Converts the exposed silver halide crystals in the film to black metallic silver |
| what does the fixer do? | Removes the unexposed silver halide crystals from the film |
| what does the wash do ? | Removes excess chemicals from the film |
| what does the dryer do? | Dries the film ready for viewing |
| advantages of ultrasound? | can produce ''real time'' image, No GA required, pain less |
| disadvantages of ultrasound | relatively expensive, training and expertise required, cannot penetrate bone or air |
| at which frequency between would you expect an ultrasound to be obtained using? | 2.5 mHz and 15 mHz |
| what crystals are found in the ultrasound transducer? | piezo electric crystals |
| Echogenicity | This refers to the ability of a substance to reflect or transmit ultrasound waves. |
| white images are described as (ultrasound) | echoic |
| dark or black images are described as (ultrasound) | anechoic |
| An object that both reflects and transmits ultrasound waves to varying degrees produces | a grey image |
| phased array transducer | produces a triangular image |
| linear array transducer | produces a rectangular image |
| Convex sector scanner (curvilinear) | produces a fan shaped image |
| uses for MRI | Bones, joints, tendons & Ligaments CNS Heart & blood vessels Liver, kidney, spleen |
| advantages of MRI | No radiation risk Produce 3 D images |
| disadvantages of MRI | expensive slow and noisy dangerous when dealing with metal limited availability |
| computed tomography | Uses an x ray tube that moves around the patient. |
| uses for CT | Bone Spinal cord Blood vessels Lungs Tumours & metastases |
| advantages of CT | Faster than MRI Less expensive Produces greater definition between tissue types |
| disadvantages of CT | Radiation risk Require GA for myelogram |
| nuclear scintigraphy | Used to assess the function of a body organ |
| In NS, what is the most commonly used isotope? | Technetium 99m |
| In NS, what type of crystal is utilised? | sodium iodide crystal |
| advantages of NS | Non invasive No GA required |
| disadvantages of NS | Patient must be isolated post procedure Extreme care required when handling patients, discharges and fomites |
| what device can be used to detect/monitor amounts of radiation? | Geiger counter |
| main function of epithelial tissue? | protection |
| epithelial tissue may be ... | simple/compound |
| simple epithelial tissue consists of | simple squamous, ciliated, columnar and cuboidal |
| simple squamous is found... | Alveoli of the lungs Bowman’s capsule of the nephron Blood capillary walls |
| cuboidal is found ... | Lining ducts and tubules of the body |
| columnar is found ... | Stomach Small intestine |
| cilliated is found... | Nasal passages Trachea and bronchi Fallopian tubes |
| goblet cells.... | secrete mucus |
| two types of compound epithelium? | transitional and stratified |
| stratified | Skin Mouth and oesophagus Vagina |
| transitional | exclusively found in urinary tract |
| muscle tissue | This tissue allows voluntary, involuntary and cardiac movement |
| three types of muscle tissue | Striated Smooth Cardiac |
| striated muscle | Also known as voluntary Biceps Triceps Quadriceps Hypaxial |
| smooth muscle | involuntary Stomach Iris Uterus |
| cardiac muscle | found exclusively in the heart - It has an inbuilt conduction system |
| connective tissue | This tissue connects the various structures of the body together |
| types of connective tissue | Dense Loose Fluid |
| examples of dense connective tissue? | Bone Cartilage Ligaments Tendons |
| two types of bone? | spongy and compact |
| compact bone is found...? | Found in the diaphysis of long bones and the outer cortex of short & flat bones |
| spongy bone is found...? | Found in the epiphysis of long bones and the inner section of flat & short bones |
| three types of cartilage? | elastic hyaline fibr |
| elastic cartilage is found... | Pinnae Larynx Epiglottis |
| hyaline cartilage | Embryonic skeleton Articular surfaces of joints Trachea Bronchi Nose Costal cartilage |
| fibrous cartilage is found... | Intervertebral discs Meniscus of stifle joint Between fixed joints |
| ligaments | connect bone to bone |
| tendon | connect bone to muscle |
| loose connective tissue | adipose tissue |
| fluid connective tissue | primarily the blood |
| nervous tissue | This tissue allows transmission of impulses throughout the animal body |
| functional structure of the nervous system is | the neuron |
| sensory neurons.... | transmit nerve impulses towards the CNS |
| motor neurons... | transmit nerve impulses away from the CNS |
| steatorrhoea | fat/mucus in stool |
| white stool | increased fat in diet, feeding bones , digestive problems |
| yellow stool | increased bile pigments due to liver damage |
| pink | hepatic dysfunction |
| bright red | Fresh blood - haematochezia haemorrhage - lower GI tract |
| dark red/brown/black | Old blood - malaena haemorrhage - upper GI tract |
| faeces -microscopic analysis | using a direct smear of fresh faeces mixed with saline/water - use x10 & x40. |
| bacterial culture optimum temp | 37 |
| pH best for bacterial culture | kept 7-7.4 |
| simple media | Provide basic nutrients for growth of general bacteria |
| enriched media | Blood agar – 5-10% blood, supports most mammalian pathogens |
| what is chocolate agar? | blood agar that has been heated to 80°c, causes blood cells to rupture and release haemoglobin |
| enrichment broths | are selective for particular bacterium e.g. selenite broth for salmonella |
| enrichment broths does ... | NOT inhibit agent to prevent growth of others |
| selective media... | Made for particular bacteria and contain inhibitory substances to prevent unwanted bacterial growth |
| Macconkey's agar | contains bile salts and allows enteric bacterial growth. |
| Sabouraud’s agar | Sabouraud’s agar – high glucose content and low PH (5.6). Ideal for fungal growth |
| Deoxycholate-citrate agar (DCA) | inhibits non enteric bacteria, Salmonella thrives. |
| transport media... | Temporary storage Maintenance agar Ensure survival of sample |
| methylene blue staining ... | Shows shape of bacteria Flood slide with 1% methylene blue |
| gram positive bacteria will stain .. | Purple |
| gram negative bacteria will stain... | pink |
| what do gram negative bacteria possess? | slime or outer covering , stopping antibiotics from penetrating cell wall |
| endoparasites | these live inside the host’s body |
| Helminths | worms |
| cestodes | tapeworms |
| Nematodes | roundworm |
| Protozoa | small unicellular organism |
| tapeworm | requires intermediate host (flea) and biting louse in dog |
| protozoa | toxoplasma gondii, giardia, e.cunniculi |
| microlytic | red blood cells are smaller than normal |
| macrolytic | red blood cells are larger than normal |
| aniscyotisis | variation in size of cells |
| crenation | gives red cell a spikey appearance |
| spherocyte | red blood cells are perfectly spherical (no longer bi-concave) |
| schisocyte | fragments of red blood cell |
| rouleaux | red cells normal in shape but have stacked appearance |
| agglutination | irregular clumping of rbc |
| jugular vein | best for blood sampling - in neck area |
| cephalic vein | can be used for blood sampling - in fore limb |
| sapphenous vein | can be used for blood sampling - hind limb |
| marginal ear vein | used for IV placement/blood sampling in bunnies |
| ideally how long should a patient be fasted for to prevent a lipaemic sample | 8-12 hours pre - sample taking |
| Post prandial | (fed prior to sample) for assessing liver function (bile acids) |
| pink blood tube ingredient? | EDTA |
| white blood tube ingredient? | plain |
| brown blood tube ingredient? | serum gel - clot activator |
| edta vaccutainer colour? | lilac |
| use of EDTA ? | haemotology |
| dark purple tube ingredient? | sodium citrate |
| what is dark purple tube used for ? | clotting disorders |
| what colour tube is lithium heparin ? | orange |
| what is the orange blood tube used for ? | biochemistry |
| what is the yellow blood tube used for? | glucose estimations |
| vaccutainer colour for yellow blood tube? | grey |
| orange blood tube vaccutainer colour? | green |
| brown blood tube vaccutainer colour? | orange |
| what is the white/brown blood tubes used for? | serum test |
Created by:
Shannonthompson97