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bio exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| population | 1. localized group of individuals. 2. individuals that share a gene pool |
| gene pool | totality of genes in a population |
| HARDY WEINBERG MODEL | 1905. tells what happens in a population just by random factors, (infinite pop, no migration, random mating, no selection, no mutation)(null model) |
| null model | starting point for specific aspects of science |
| what does the hardy weinberg model p stand for | the proportion of dominant allele in a population |
| what does the hardy q stand for | proportion of recessive alleles in a population |
| what are the conclusions of hardy weinberg | allele proportions do not change, genotypic proportions are reached in one generation and then do not change. (only if assumptions are met) |
| phenylketanuria | female genetic condition causes a failure to breakdown amino acid phenylalanine |
| assumption of hardy weinberg infinite pop size | an isolated population has a greater chance of major statistical overreach due to chance |
| assumptions of hardy weinberg no migration | no gene flow- bringing genes in by migration |
| assumption of hardy weinberg random mating | proportion of genotypes is the same throughout population or follows expected. (If AA pairs preferentially with AA (assortative mating) ) |
| assumption of hardy weinberg no selection | if one genotype is survived and passed on more the effect would violate HW |
| assumption of hardy weinberg no mutation | occured so infrequently that it was ignored |
| what is it referred to when an allele is lost in popn and another becomes 100% or 1.00 | fixed |
| what might happen due to the founding effect | lose many rare alleles, few gain major increase in frequency |
| penicillin | early 1900's, more common during WW2, used for basic problems in 1960's-1970's |
| how to prevent supeerbugs | take antibiotics as directed, and finish full prescription |
| plato | ideal types, typological view of nature, individual variation is imperfect manifestation of ethos scale of nature |
| aristotle | scale of nature, great chain of being, started common term adaptation. "nature does nothing uselessly" |
| natural theology | study of nature would reveal plan of creation, analogy of the watch maker. "you see ripples in the sand, think it's natural. see a watch and gears, think it was made. the sand was made that way too" |
| Linneus | founder of taxonomy, binamical classification. (Homo sapiens) homo+ genus, sapiens + species |
| what was the timeline of darwins very early life (prenotoriety) | born in 1809 died in 1882. liked to collect beetles and organisms, 1831 obtained degree in theology (after flunking med school) and in 1832 went on the voyage ofthe beagle |
| gradualism | taken while on beagle geology based idea darwin borrowed stating you can produce major changes by small, everyday processes, if given enough time. (making mountains/carving rivers |
| artificial selection | borrowed idea taken while on voyage of the beagle, plant and animal breeders change the genetics of organisms through purposeful breeding |
| biogeography | observation made on voyage study of distribution of plants and animals. 1. groups of related species in same area 2. extinct species in an area were related to living/extant species (fossils) 3. island species were often similar to mainland species |
| thomas mathius | read by darwin in 1838, stated "human population is going to increase faster than food can. Humans will slowly starve to death" applied to populations have the potential to increase in size one year after voyage of the beagle |
| adam smith | darwin borrowed ideas of different ways of organizing economy. king and counsel, anarchy, but it will eventually even out and balance, Self-Organizing principle of complex systems |
| what was the observation darwin gained after borrowing mathus and smiths ideas | Economy of Nature |
| what year did darwin complete his theory | 1844 but didn't publish it, called it "descent with modification" rather than evolution. 1858 ALFRED WALLACE published a similar theory to darwins but with less evidence. then in 1859 darwin wrote the origin of species |
| theory of evolution | every pop can increase. pops are aomewhat stable. there are limited resources 4 survival/reproducing. competition for resources. ability to compete varies. some of that is heritable. those w/ favorable variation produce more offspring. traits accumulate |
| eugenics | plan to change population to obtain perfect gene pool |
| daphnes finch | 1976 beak length 9.5 mm large pop. drought hit. 1978, popn crash 80% decrease, survivors-10.25mm, offspring of survivors-10mm. back and forth since |
| microevolution | changes in allele frequency in popn |
| speciation | formation of a new species |
| macroevolution | evolution of larger taxonomic units over long periods of time |
| ernst mayor | biospecies concept, group of popn can exchange genetic info, reproductive isolation |
| morphospecies concept | classification based on anatomy and appearance |
| molecular species concept | genetic distance b/w two species (dna) |
| prezygote reproduction barriers | geographic isolation, habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation. |
| habitat isolation | same region/barely interact w/ eachother |
| temporal isolation | breed at different times |
| behavioral isolation | based on courtship differences, common in animals |
| mechanical isolation | lock/key differences may appear in insects |
| gametic isolation | egg + sperm won't fuse. common in species with external organs like fish |
| post zygotic reproduction barriers | hybrid inviability: hybrid doesn't survive until adult stage. hybrid sterility- horse and donkey equal mule |
| describe what might happen if there is a barrier dividing a large chunk of a population from a small one | 1,000s of years, barrier breaks. (founder effect) now there are major genetic differences, but the same species. . if mated, gene flows, and lessen genetic differences |
| lake malawi africa | periods of drying separated one big lake into smaller lakes, and wet periods returned them into one big one. The chcihlan fish have 200+ species |
| adaptive radiation | many species evolve from 1/a few common ancestors |
| sympatric speciation ex | rhagoletis pomnella found in hawthorn fruit , some started breeding on apples in 1864, today there are two species, one on apple and one on hawthorn, genetically different. |
| directional selection | changes mean value, moves bell curve in one direction |
| stabalizing selection | reduces number of variants, narrows bell curve |
| diversifying/disruptive seection | diminishes average trait, increases extremes, may result in polymorphism |
| polymorphism | more than 1 form |
| evolutionary imprint | takes 1 species at a time and changes it into a new one, does not kill old ones. like a line of jeeps, the 1990's cars still exist |
| explain the trending of marsupial habitization | at pangea, australia south america and antarctica separated taking marsupials w/ it. those in antarctica died w/ freezing temps, south america connected to north america and the opossum migrated to north america |
| what is the unknown 4th rule | distribution of organisms should reflect past distribution of continents |
| monophyletic | same ancestors. (noticeable in forearm of mammals) |
| give an example of convergence | similarities in wings from birds, bats, insects and pterodactyls |
| what are examples of common characteristics between fish, humans, birds and reptiles | at some point in development all have, gill slits, tail extending past anus, notochord, dorsal, hollow nerve cord (only one that remains after birth in humans |
| vestigial structure | structure that no longer serves the purpose it had in an ancestor. (femurs of whales) (often reduced in size) |
| atavistic structures | abnormal reappearance of a structure that was present in an ancestor and then lost (some humans are born w/tails) |
| what are the main groups of vertebrates | fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. differences include quality of hair, protein and insulin but are suprisingly limited. regulatory genes control what is activated, even though same genes are present some are not activated |
| explain the blind cave fish | lives in total darkness, eyes prone to infection, they have no eyes. PAX6 gene, necessary for eye formation wa seliminated. If you insert PAX6 from a mouse into a blind fly, the regular fly eye will form!!!! PAX6 doesn't control making it, just starts it |
| heterochrony | changing of timing of events during development when regulatory gene turns on/off other genes can have a major impact on development |
| give an example of heterochrony | common zebra, stripes form at 21 days they have fewest thickest stripes. mountain starts at 28, intermediate. Grevy's Zebra starts at 35 days have the most and thinnest stripes |
| paedomorphosis | retention of juvenile traist of ancestral species in adult form of descendents (not changing proteins (heterochrony)) |
| what's an example of juvenile feautures in adults | axolotl salamanders. juveniles usually had gills and tails but outgrew them and moved to land, axolotls did not, usually triggered by thyroid hormones boost that axolotl doesn't get. humans can mimic the change by injecting an axolotl with the hormones |
| homeotic genes | regulatory, influences placement of structures on body (anterior/posterior etc) ex. dros. w/ leg where antannae goes |
| HOX genes | genetic toolkit part that influences the placement of structures along the long axis of our body |
| homeosis | formation of a normal structure or organ in place of another at an abnormal site, as caused by expresssion of mutated HOX gene |
| order of hox gene... | mirrors the order of placement on body's long axis |
| how may sets of HOX genes are in invertebrates, primitive chordates and humans | inv-1, chord- 2, vertebrates- 4 |
| evo-devo | evolution through a developmental program |
| proximate explanation | immediate physiological cause (hormones and nerves) |
| ex. of proximate explanation of why birds sing | in spring, birds have "singing" centers in the brain that swell due to hormones |
| ultimate explanation | what is the function or purpose? |
| ex of ultimate explanation as to why birds sing | attract mates, compete w/ other males, defend territory |
| what is a birds song called when used for warning | a call |
| what are examples of stereotypical presentation animal behavior | exaggeration of size, natural behavior (intention movement), freeze posture (teeth bared (stereotypical presentation)) |
| agressive interactions | agonistic, conflict behavior, diff. intensities of display. Red deer (europe) males bellow low frequency sounds (larger = lower) parallel walks, and antler fights. |
| social groups | dominance hierarchy. wolves. recognition of individuals, disputes settled w/ little display/fights/injuries. 1 alpha male and female. only alpha female can have pups, if another does shell kill them. |
| whats another name for dominance hierarchies | pecking orders |
| what are the two goals of animals in eyes of darwinism and sexual selection | compete w/ same sex. attract opposite sex |
| what is a biological female | individual that produces larger gamete |
| describe parental investmennt | pre-fertilization female invests more. post fertilization/birth/hatching may change investment depending on who incubates/feeds/nurses etc |
| hypothesis of mating choice | sex investing more in the offspring will be more "choosey" about mates. sex investing less will put more effort into mating displays |
| monogamy | 1 male and 1 male, 80% of birds <10% of mammal species. Sexes tend to be similar in size and color. both sexes choosey about mates and provide care. interactive courtship |
| polygyny | 1 male, multiple females. 15% of bird species, male usually larger & more colorful, female more choosey about mates, females provide care. male does the courting |
| polyandry | 1 female multiple males. 1% bird species. female does courting, is larger and more colorful, males provide care and are more choosey |
| communication | intentional transfer of information, expect sender to always benefit, reciever may or may not |
| firefliy communication | genus photinus, small, male flash signals while flying female responds by flashing from the ground females lay egg and no other care is given. Genus Photurus is larger than photinus, when females hungry flashes to male photinus and eats the horny bastard. |
| how can you differentiate between fireflies | each species of firefly has unique flashing sequences |
| what are the three types of bees within a colony | queen, worker and drone |
| queen bees | female, lay eggs, lives 5 years, diploid, develop in special cell and is fed royal jelly. when she just becomes queen wll go on 10-15 mating flights, killing all her subsequent lovers and harvesting/storing the eggs. |
| why does the queen bees lifespan differ so much from the workers | a developmental switch occurs d/t the royal jelly and special cell |
| worker bees | female, perform tasks, diploid, live 35 days (lower metabolism in winter to survive the season however) |
| drone bees | male, do no colony work. only purpose is to mate with other queens and die |
| annual cycle of honey bee colony | spring-collect nectar(carb) and pollen(protein), grow. summer- swarm, old queen leaves w/ half the colony and original colony produces 10-20 new beta queens where 1 will kill the rest. fall- queen stops laying eggs, drones kicked out. winter- survive |
| genome size base pairs | human mitochondria 16,569, plasmids 1k-100k, viruses 5k-200k, bacteria 1-6m, plants and animals, 100 mil-150 bil, humans 6billion protists, 10-50 million |
| genome size number of genes | human mitochondria, 37. prokaryotes 1500-7500, eukaryotes 5k-40k, hamans 22k |
| genome | full complement of the genetic material for organism |
| what can create pseudogenes | transposons |
| human genome project | map all base sequences and genes for all chromosomes, started w/ bact and plasmids, lead to learning complete genomes of 30,000 organismsa |
| human genome diversity project | getting genomes from various ethnic groups around the world, helps figure out human migration, explain theory of evolution |
| proteomics | identify all proteins of a species. wants to determine shape, function |
| transcriptomics | identify mRNA transcripts being used (gene expression) |
| Metagenomics | (prokaryotic communities mostly) understand genomes of an entire communities of organisms |
| types of coding dna 2% | single gene copy, multigene families (tandem clusters-ex amylase genes in humans 6-15 (copy number variation) and non-identical copies) |
| whats an example of tandem clusters | these are identical copies of coding dna. an example is the amylase gene in chimps (2) and humans (6-15) |
| whats an example of nonidentical clusters | part of multigene families. evolve by duplication and divergence, globin genes. in an adult there are 2 alpha polypeptide chains on chromosome 16 and 2 beta on 11. a fetus has 2 gamma chains on chromosome 11 too. |
| what are the 5 types of noncoding dna | introns, promotor/operator/utr, centromere/telomere (w/ each division telomere gets shorter), pseudogenes and repetitive dna |
| pseudogenes | similar to functioning gene except with 1 difference, in coding sequence, make it non functional. example: primates can't synthesize vitamin c but we have pseudogene for it. lost the ability |
| repetitive dna | makes up most of dna, GC repeats show up as light bands on chromosomes, AT as dark. Also, transpososns and nontransposable elements |
| phylogenetics | study of the evolutionary relationships among organisms, based on morphology and dna, mitochondrial dna and nuclear dna are also used |
| monophyletic group | thought to be derived from one common ancestor (marsupials, mammal birthing underdeveloped young, pouch, no placenta) |
| whats the birds closest relative | reptiless (SAUROPSIDA), but birds still generally classed differently |
| highly conserved region | pertains to amino acid sequences and the minimal differences in certain areas to produce the same protein |
| what does homeothermic mean and is it monophyletic | warmblooded. no cannot be traced to one common ancestor |
| what is an example of evolution by convergence | birds and insects both have wings |
| polyploidy | 2+ sets of chromosomes, common in plants |
| explain the evolution of wheat to bread wheat | Species A (AA) and B (BB) both had 14 chromosomes and sexually reproduced to produce AB (14 chromosomes). this asexually replroduced into a sterile hybrid and then duplicated to AABB w/ 28 chromosomes (tetraploid)(pasta wheat) and sexually reproduced D |
Created by:
rachel krystopowicz