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A&P Test 2
Study Notecards
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| 1. Define stroke volume | The amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle of the heart in one contraction |
| 2. Define cardiac output | The amount of blood the heart pumps through the circulatory system in a minute |
| 3. Know what happens to the cardiac output if the stroke volume increase | If heart rate increases, then stroke volume will have to decrease to maintain a normal cardiac output |
| 5. Define end diastolic volume | the volume of blood in the right and/or left ventricle at end load or filling in (diastole) or the amount of blood in the ventricles just before systole. |
| 6. Define end systolic volume | is the volume of blood in a ventricle at the end of contraction, or systole, and the beginning of filling, or diastole. ESV is the lowest volume of blood in the ventricle at any point in the cardiac cycle. |
| 7. Define preload | is the end diastolic volume that stretches the right or left ventricle of the heart to its greatest dimensions under variable physiologic demand |
| 8. Define afterload | is the pressure against which the heart must work to eject blood during systole |
| 9. Define contractility | - is the intrinsic ability of heart muscle to generate force and to shorten, ideally autonomously of changes in heart rate (HR), preload or afterload. |
| chemicals that increase strength of contraction. | Sympathetic nervous system - increases HR and strength of heart beat Hormones |
| chemicals that increase strength of contraction. | Norepinephrine - increases HR by increasing SA node firing |
| chemicals that increase strength of contraction. | Thyroxine - increases metabolic rate and HR Negative chronotropic factors FIG 19.26 - |
| chemicals that decrease strength of contraction. | Autonomic nervous system Parasympathetic - decreases HR and strength of HB |
| chemicals that decrease strength of contraction. | Neurotransmitter - acetylcholine slows HR through hyperpolarization |
| septal defects - | A heart defect due to an abnormal connection between the lower chambers of the heart (ventricles). |
| patent ductus arteriosus - | is a condition in which the ductus arteriosusdoes not close |
| 11. Know the congenital defects in the heart: coarctation of the aorta - | A narrowing of the large blood vessel (aorta) that leads from the heart. |
| 11. Know the congenital defects in the heart: tetralogy of Fallot - | A rare condition caused by a combination of four heart defects that are present at birth. |
| 1. Know the functions of a. Arteries | Function - carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the lungs |
| 1. Know the structure of a. Arteries | Structure - The wall of an artery consists of three layers. The innermost layer, the tunica intima (also called tunica interna), is simple squamous epithelium surrounded by a connective tissue basement membrane with elastic fibers. |
| 1. Know the structure of a. Arteries PART 2 | The middle layer, the tunica media, is primarily smooth muscle and is usually the thickest layer. |
| b. Function of veins | Function - Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. |
| Structure of Veins | structure - The structure of veins is similar to that of arteries, again consisiting of three layers: Tunica Adventitia: This is the strong outer covering of arteries and veins which consists of connective tissues, collagen and elastic fibres. |
| Structure of Veins Part 2 | Tunica Media: This is the middle layer and consists of smooth muscle and elastic fibres |
| 2. Define hydrostatic pressure | The pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity |
| 3. Define osmotic pressure | is the minimum pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of its pure solvent across a semipermeable membrane |
| 4. Know which type of vessel has the lowest blood pressure. | Blood pressure is lowest in the VENA CAVA because FLOW RESISTANCE brings the pressure down. |
| 5. Know which type has the slowest blood flow | (IT’S NOT THE SAME VESSEL!) capillaries |
| 6. What is the driving force behind movement of blood through the vessels? | a pressure gradient. |
| Blood moves down a pressure gradient from | high pressure to low pressure |
| 7. Define Vasoconstriction | the constriction of blood vessels, which increases blood pressure. |
| Define vasodilation | the dilatation of blood vessels, which decreases blood pressure. |
| Define Resistance artery | is small diameter blood vessel in the microcirculation that contributes significantly to the creation of the resistance to flow and regulation of blood flow |
| Know the relationship between vasoconstriction and vasodilation regarding resistance | Vasodilation caused by relaxation of smooth muscle cells in arteries causes an increase in blood flow. |
| Know the relationship between vasoconstriction and vasodilation regarding resistance PART 2 | When blood vessels dilate, the blood flow is increased due to a decrease in vascular resistance. |
| Know the relationship between increased or decreased resistance and blood flow. | increased resistance = decreased blood pressure. increased resistance = decreased blood flow. increased blood pressure = increased blood flow. |
| Know the hormones that raise or lower blood pressure. | Epinephrine (either; depends on receptor). ADH and aldosterone = vasoconstriction = increase BP. ANP, nitric oxide, histamine, alcohol = vasodilation = decrease BP. |
| Define edema. | The swelling of soft tissues as a result of excess fluid accumulation Know what contributes to this disorder. |
| Know the 3 things that contribute to vascular resistance. | Blood vessel diameter, blood viscosity, and total vessel length. |
| Know where the cardiovascular center is located, and its function. | medulla oblongata. Function is a part of the human brain responsible for the regulation of the rate at which the heart beats through the nervous and endocrine systems. |
| In arteries, know the tissue that is responsible for vasoconstriction and vasodilation. | small vascular nerves, known as nervi vasorum |
| o. Know the pressure (hydrostatic or osmotic) that causes filtration or reabsorption. | Filtration Hydrostatic pressure Reabsorption Colloidal osmotic pressure |
| NFP = a positive number 14: Hydrostatic pressure | drives filtration Fluid moves out of capillaries at arteriole end |
| osmotic pressure: NFP 5 = negative number | drives reabsorption Fluid moves into capillaries at venule end |
| Know the function of valves in veins, the skeletal muscle pump and the respiratory pump. | Both mechanisms rely on venous valves to operate. |
| Know the function of the precapillary sphincters. | a band of smooth muscle that adjusts blood flow into capillaries mainly in the mesenteric microcirculation. |
| Know where baroreceptors are found. | most notably in arterial walls of the aorta of the heart and the carotid arteries |
| Know where chemoreceptors are found. | on the ventrolateral surface of medulla oblongata and detect changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid |
| Know the function of baroreceptors function. | Their function is to sense pressure changes by responding to change in the tension of the arterial wall. |
| Chemoreceptors function | brain provide sensory input to the central circuits controlling breathing and cardiovascular function |
| Know the driving force behind movement of molecules into or out of vessels. | a pressure gradient. |
| Know which disorder is considered the “silent killer” and why. | Hypertension and why because very, very few people know when their blood pressure goes up |
| Know some factors that contribute to cardiovascular disease. | It also increases your risk of stroke, heart attack, kidney failure and congestive heart failure. When high blood pressure exists with obesity, smoking, high blood cholesterol levels or diabetes, the risk of heart attack or stroke increases even more. |
| Know the functions of the respiratory system. | 1) gas exchange 2) moves air to and from lungs 3) protection 4) produces sounds 5) olfactory sensations |
| Know the functions of the Type I alveolar cells | main site for gas exchange - Form lining of alveolar wall |
| Type II alveolar cells | cover a small fraction of the alveolar surface area. Their function is of major importance in the secretion of pulmonary surfactant, which decreases the surface tension within the alveoli |
| Know the ways oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the body | must be expelled from the cells and the body. ... Oxygen enters the blood from the lungs and carbon dioxide is expelled out of the blood into the lungs. The blood serves to transport both gases. Oxygen is carried to the cells. |
| Know the 3 things that affect pulmonary ventilation. | surface tension of the alveolar fluid, compliance of the lungs, and airway resistance. |
| Know what causes respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants. | occurs in infants whose lungs have not yet fully developed. The disease is mainly caused by a lack of a slippery substance in the lungs called surfactant. |
| Know what causes respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants. part 2 | This substance helps the lungs fill with air and keeps the air sacs from deflating. Surfactant is present when the lungs are fully developed. |
| pulmonary ventilation | is commonly referred to as breathing. It is the process of air flowing into the lungs during inspiration (inhalation) and out of the lungs during expiration |
| external respiration | he diffusion of gases across the gas exchange membrane into blood from the external environment. gas transport |
| internal respiration | the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood or lymph and the body cells |
| Know the basic steps leading to inhalation | 1.Nerve impulses are sent to muscles-- diaphragm contracts and external intercostal muscles pulls ribs up and out. 2.Thoracic cavity is expanded, and pulls the parietal pleura with it. 3.Visceral pleura sticks to parietal pleura and is pulled with it. |
| Know the basic steps leading to inhalation PART 2 | 4.Lungs are expanded. 5.intrapulmonic pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure. 6.Air rushes into lung. |
| Basic steps leading to exhalation | 1.Nerve impulses from medulla decrease. 2.The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax. 3.Thoracic cavity becomes smaller. |
| Basic steps leading to exhalation PART 2 | 4.The lungs recoil and compress the alveoli. 5.Intrapulmonic pressure increases above atmospheric 6. Air is forced out of lungs. |
| 10. Know the pressures that change during breathing | Intra-alveolar pressure |
| How does the partial pressure gradient affect pulmonary ventilation (inhalation and exhalation)? | air moves down a pressure gradient from high pressure to low pressure. During inhalation, intrapulmonary pressure is higher inside lungs and atmospheric pressure is lower outside body. Reverse occurs with exhalation. |
| Know how the partial pressure gradient affects gas exchange (movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide | O2 and CO2 move down their pressure gradients from where they are each at higher concentration to where they are at lower concentration. They are moving into or out of capillaries and RBC in opposite directions |
| Know what determines the direction of gas movement. | the partial pressure gradient. |
| Boyle’s law | states that at constant temperature for a fixed mass, the absolute pressure and the volume of a gas are inversely proportional |
| Dalton’s law | the law that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the gases of the mixture |
| Henry’s law | At a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas that dissolves in a given type and volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid |
| Bohr effect | a decrease in the amount of oxygen associated with hemoglobin and other respiratory compounds in response to a lowered blood pH resulting from an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. |
| Bohr effect | a decrease in the amount of oxygen associated with hemoglobin and other respiratory compounds in response to a lowered blood pH resulting from an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. |
| Haldane effect | Oxygenation of blood in the lungs displaces carbon dioxide from hemoglobin which increases the removal of carbon dioxide |
| 17. Know the chemical in the blood that is the main trigger for breathing | co2 |
| 20. Know what happens during the chloride shift? | Cl- ions move down their concentration gradient into RBCs as HCO3- is moving out of RBCs at systemic capillaries. This maintains the ionic (electrical) balance between plasma and RBCs. |
| 21. the reverse chloride shift? | Occurs when blood reaches pulmonary capillaries and HCO3- moves back into RBC while Cl- ions move out of RBC to maintain electrical charge between plasma and RBCs. |
| a. Eupnea | is normal, good, unlabored breathing, sometimes known as quiet breathing |
| b. Apnea | temporary cessation of breathing, especially during sleep. |
| Dyspnea | difficult or labored breathing. |
| c. Orthopnea | shortness of breath (dyspnea) that occurs when lying flat, causing the person to have to sleep propped up in bed or sitting in a chair. |
| d. Tachypnea | abnormally rapid breathing. |
| e. Hyperpnea | increased depth and rate of breathing. |
| A. Sinusitis | inflammation of a nasal sinus. |
| Laryngitis | inflammation of the larynx, typically resulting in huskiness or loss of the voice, harsh breathing, and a painful cough. |
| C. Bronchitis | inflammation of the mucous membrane in the bronchial tubes. It typically causes bronchospasm and coughing. |
| D. Asthma | respiratory condition marked by spasms in the bronchi of the lungs, causing difficulty in breathing. It usually results from an allergic reaction or other forms of hypersensitivity. |
| E. lung cancer | uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that start off in one or both lungs; usually in the cells that line the air passages. The abnormal cells do not develop into healthy lung tissue, they divide rapidly and form tumors. |
| a. emphysema | is a long-term, progressive disease of the lungs that primarily causes shortness of breath due to over-inflation of the alveoli (air sacs in the lung) |
| b. pleurisy | inflammation of the pleurae, which impairs their lubricating function and causes pain when breathing. It is caused by pneumonia and other diseases of the chest or abdomen. |
| c. pleural effusion | is a buildup of fluid in the pleural space, an area between the layers of tissue that line the lungs and the chest cavity. |
| d. fibrosis - | the thickening and scarring of connective tissue, usually as a result of injury. |
| g. tuberculosis | is an infectious disease usually caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). Tuberculosisgenerally affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body. |
| h. cleft palate | congenital fissure of the roof of the mouth produced by failure of the two maxillae to unite during embryonic development andoften associated with cleft lip — called also palatoschisis. |
| i. cystic fibrosis | is a progressive, genetic disease that causes persistent lung infections and limits the ability to breathe over time. In people with CF, a defective gene causes a thick, sticky buildup of mucus in the lungs, pancreas, and other organs |
| Blood pressure is highest in the ___________ and lowest in the _____________. | arteries closest to the heart; veins |
| In both pulmonary and systemic circulation, gas exchange occurs at the | capillaries. |
| The vessels that are responsible for carrying blood away from the heart are | arteries |
| When a person changes position from lying down to standing, the blood pressure in the veins of the lower limbs __________. | increases |
| As the cross-sectional area of blood vessels increases, velocity of blood flow | decreases |
| Deoxygenated blood from the heart myocardium drains into the right atrium via the | coronary sinus |
| The trachea bifurcates at the level of the sternal angle (where the manubrium and body of the sternum articulate) into the right and left | main bronchi |
| The right lung has ________ lobes, and the left lung has ________ lobes. | three, two |
| The pleural cavity | is a potential space that contains a lubricating fluid that allows the visceral and parietal pleura to slide by each other easily. |
| Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) can also be described as | the movement of air into and out of the lungs. |
| During inhalation, the thoracic cavity ___________; during exhalation, the thoracic cavity ___________. | becomes larger; returns to its original size |
| Airflow is a function of what two factors? | Pressure gradient and resistance |
| This ability of bronchioles to regulate airflow and arterioles to regulate blood flow is called | ventilation-perfusion coupling. |
| The largest percentage of carbon dioxide is transported in the blood as | bicarbonate dissolved in the plasma |
| The _______ is the volume of a gas, at a given temperature and pressure, that dissolves in a specified volume of liquid. | solubility coefficient |
| This ability of bronchioles to regulate airflow and arterioles to regulate blood flow is called | ventilation-perfusion coupling. |
| The result of inspiration is | increased alveolar volume causes decreased alveolar pressure. |
| During expiration | decreased alveolar volume causes increased alveolar pressure. |
| An application of Boyle's Law is, at a constant temperature | as the pressure on a gas increases, the volume decreases. |
| The vestibular and vocal folds are found in the | larynx |
| The pressure exerted by each gas within a mixture of gases and is measured in mm Hg is _______ pressure. | partial |
| Oxygen bound to hemoglobin is referred to as _______. | oxyhemoglobin |
| A breathing rate or depth that is increased above the body's demand is called _______. | hyperventilation |
| Bronchioles have a proportionately thicker layer of smooth muscle than bronchi and contraction of this smooth muscle narrows the diameter of the bronchiole, referred to as bronchodilation. | false |
| External respiration involves the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood. | true |
| Boyle’s law states that at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas decreases if the volume of the container decreases, and vice versa. | false |
| If a partial pressure gradient exists between two regions for a given gas, then the gas moves from the region of its lower partial pressure to the region of its higher partial pressure. | false |
| Henry's law states that at a given temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is dependent upon the partial pressure of the gas in the air and the solubility coefficient of the gas. | true |
| Oxygen diffuses across the respiratory membrane from the alveoli into the capillaries because of the P(O2) partial pressure gradient. | true |
| The largest percentage of carbon dioxide is carried from the tissue cells to the lungs attached to the globin portion of hemoglobin | false |
| You cannot consciously hold your breath long enough to die. | true |
| As the volume in the alveoli increases, the pressure decreases. | true |
| The alveoli never attain equal pressure with the ambient (outside) air. | false |
| Gases diffuse because of differences in partial pressures from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. | true |
| When partial pressures for a given gas are equal between the capillaries and the tissue fluids, no net movement of that gas occurs. | true |
| As the lungs expand while breathing, the pressure in the lungs decreases. | true |
| During inspiration, thoracic cavity volume increases. | true |
Created by:
zachflemings