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Sociology Exam #3
Chapters 14,15,16,18,20
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| practicing cultural relativism | we should also consider variations, such as whether a legal union is required (think of “common law” marriage and its equivalents), or whether more than two people can be involved (consider polygamy). |
| family | as a socially recognized group (usually joined by blood, marriage, cohabitation, or adoption) that forms an emotional connection and serves as an economic unit of society. |
| family of orientation | refers to the family into which a person is born |
| family of procreation | describes one that is formed through marriage |
| cohabitation | when a couple shares a residence but not a marriage |
| monogamy | when someone is married to only one person at a time |
| polygamy | or being married to more than one person at a time |
| Polygyny | refers to a man being married to more than one woman at the same time. |
| polyandry | when a woman is married to more than one man at the same time |
| bilateral descent | Both paternal and maternal ancestors are considered part of one’s family. This pattern of tracing kinship is called |
| kinship | one’s traceable ancestry, can be based on blood or marriage or adoption. |
| Unilateral descent | the tracing of kinship through one parent only |
| patrilineal | which follows the father’s line only |
| matrilineal | which follows the mother’s side only |
| ambilineal | which follows either the father’s only or the mother’s side only, depending on the situation |
| patrilocal residence | system it is customary for the wife to live with (or near) her husband’s blood relatives - China |
| matrilocal residence | where it is customary for the husband to live with his wife’s blood relatives -Indonesia |
| family life cycle | The set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time |
| family life course | recognizes the events that occur in the lives of families but views them as parting terms of a fluid course rather than in consecutive stages |
| nuclear family | referring to married parents and children as the nucleus, or core, of the group. Recent years have seen a rise in variations of the nuclear family with the parents not being married. |
| extended family | may include aunts, uncles, and cousins living in the same home. Foster parents account for about a quarter of nonrelatives. |
| intimate partner violence (IPV) | It is often characterized as violence between household or family members, specifically spouses. To include unmarried, cohabitating, and same-sex couples |
| shaken-baby syndrome | describes a group of medical symptoms such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage resulting from forcefully shaking or causing impact to an infant’s head |
| Same-sex couple households account for _____ percent of U.S. households. | 1 |
| Couples who cohabitate before marriage are ______ couples who did not cohabitate before marriage to be married at least ten years. | slightly less likely than |
| According to the study cited by the U.S. Census Bureau, children who live with married parents grow up with more advantages than children who live with: | a single parent |
| Which of the following is a criticism of the family life cycle model? | It is too narrowly focused on a sequence of stages. |
| Research suggests that people generally feel that their current family is ______________ than the family they grew up with. | at least as close |
| The median age of first marriage has _____ in the last fifty years. | increased for both men and women |
| current divorce rates are: | steadily declining |
| In general, children in ______ households benefit from divorce. | high-conflict |
| Which of the following is true of intimate partner violence (IPV)? | Nearly half of instances of IPV involve drugs or alcohol. |
| religion | is a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds sacred or considers to be spiritually significant. |
| Religious experience | refers to the conviction or sensation that we are connected to “the divine.” This type of communion might be experienced when people are pray or meditate. |
| Religious beliefs | specific ideas members of a particular faith hold to be true, such as that Jesus Christ was the son of God, or that reincarnation exists. Another illustration of religious beliefs is the creation stories we find in different religions. |
| Religious rituals | behaviors or practices that are either required or expected of the members of a particular group, such as bar mitzvah or confession of sins |
| sacred | extraordinary—something that inspired wonder and that seemed connected to the concept of “the divine.” |
| Max Weber | believed it was a precipitator of social change. He looked at effects of religion on economic activities and noticed that heavily Protestant societies were the most highly developed capitalist societies and were the most successful business leaders |
| Critics of RCT | argue that it doesn’t fit well with human spiritual needs, and many sociologists disagree that the costs and rewards of religion can even be meaningfully measured or that individuals use a rational balancing process regarding religious affiliation. |
| Cults | like sects, are new religious groups |
| Sect | a small and relatively new group |
| established sects | Some sects dissolve without growing into denominations, such as the Amish or Jehovah’s Witnesses fall halfway between sect and denomination on the ecclesia–cult continuum because they have a mixture of sect-like and denomination-like characteristics. |
| denomination | a large, mainstream religious organization, but it does not claim to be official or state sponsored. |
| ecclesia | originally referring to a political assembly of citizens in ancient Athens, Greece, now refers to a congregation. |
| monotheism | is a religion based on belief in a single deity |
| polytheistic | is a religion based on belief in multiple deities, |
| animism | which is a religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world |
| totemism | believe in a divine connection between humans and other natural beings. |
| atheists | who do not believe in a divine being or entity, and agnostics, who hold that ultimate reality (such as God) is unknowable. |
| Hinduism | Hinduism is the third-largest of the world’s religions. Hindus believe in a divine power that can manifest as different entities. Three main incarnations—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva |
| Buddhism | lead a moral life by accepting the four Noble Truths: 1) life is suffering, 2) suffering arises from attachment to desires, 3) suffering ceases when attachment to desires ceases, and 4) freedom from suffering is possible by following the “middle way. |
| Confucianism | it focuses on sharing wisdom about moral practices but doesn’t involve any type of specific worship; nor does it have formal object—were collected in a book called the Analects. |
| Taoism | the purpose of life is inner peace and harmony. Tao is usually translated as “way” or “path.” The ying-yang symbol and the concept of polar forces are central Taoist ideas |
| Judaism | Jews emphasize moral behavior and action in this world as opposed to beliefs or personal salvation in the next world. Jews, a nomadic society, became monotheistic, worshipping only one God. |
| Islam | is monotheistic religion and it follows the teaching of the prophet Muhammad, born in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, in 570 C.E. Muhammad is seen only as a prophet, not as a divine being, and he is believed to be the messenger of Allah (God), who is divine. |
| Christianity | that the son of God—a messiah—will return to save God’s followers. While Christians believe that he already appeared in the person of Jesus Christ |
| Liberation theology | it combines Christian principles with political activism. It uses the church to promote social change via the political arena, and it is most often seen in attempts to reduce or eliminate social injustice, discrimination, and poverty |
| megachurch | a Christian church that has a very large congregation averaging more than 2,000 people who attend regular weekly services. Critics of megachurches believe they are too large to promote close relationships among fellow church members or the pastor |
| secularization | the historical process in which religion loses social and cultural significance. |
| Some controversial groups that may be mislabeled as cults include: | Scientology and the Hare Krishna |
| The main difference between an ecclesia and a denomination is: | ecclesia are state-sponsored and considered an official religion |
| Which of the following do the functionalist and conflict perspectives share? | Position that religion relates to social control, enforcing social norms |
| Many stories in the sacred text of Judaism are: | shared by Christianity and Islam |
| Social scientists refer to the use of a church to combat social injustice in the political realm as: | liberation theology |
| Education | is a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms. |
| Formal education | the learning of academic facts and concepts through a formal curriculum |
| informal education | learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors by participating in a society |
| Cultural transmission | to the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture. |
| universal access | to people’s equal ability to participate in an education system |
| Manifest Functions | which are the intended and visible functions of education; and latent |
| Latent Secondary functions | which are the hidden and unintended functions. |
| social placement | Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility. |
| sorting | classifying students based on academic merit or potential. |
| cultural capital, | cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency that helps us navigate a culture, alters the experiences and opportunities available to French students from different social classes. |
| hidden curriculum | refers to the type of nonacademic knowledge that students learn through informal learning and cultural transmission. |
| tracking | formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced versus low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities. |
| grade inflation | a term used to describe the observation that the correspondence between letter grades and the achievements they reflect has been changing (in a downward direction) over time. |
| Credentialism | emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications. |
| Head Start program, | developed to give low-income students an opportunity to make up the preschool deficit discussed in Coleman’s findings. |
| No Child Left Behind Act | requires states to test students in designated grades. The results of those tests determine eligibility to receive federal funding. |
| What do nations that are top-ranked in science and math have in common? | They recruit top teachers |
| The 1972 case Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia set a precedent for | access to education |
| Which of the following is not a manifest function of education? | Courtship |
| conflict theorists see sorting as a way to ________. | perpetuate divisions of socioeconomic status |
| Public schools must guarantee that | per-student spending is equitable |
| Conflict theorists see IQ tests as being biased. Why? | They reward affluent students with questions that assume knowledge associated with upper-class culture. |
| economy | to the social institution through which a society’s resources are exchanged and managed |
| Mechanical solidarity | exists in simpler societies where social cohesion comes from sharing similar work, education, and religion. |
| Organic solidarity | arises out of the mutual interdependence created by the specialization of work. |
| bartering | Exchanging one form of goods or services for another |
| Money | an object that a society agrees to assign a value to so it can be exchanged for payment. |
| Mercantilism | an economic policy based on accumulating silver and gold by controlling colonial and foreign markets through taxes and other charges |
| subsistence farming | they produced only enough to feed themselves and pay their taxes. |
| capitalism | an economic system in which there is private ownership (as opposed to state ownership) and where there is an impetus to produce profit, and thereby wealth. |
| Socialism | an economic system in which there is government ownership (often referred to as “state run”) of goods and their production, with an impetus to share work and wealth equally among the members of a society. |
| Market socialism | a subtype of socialism that adopts certain traits of capitalism, like allowing limited private ownership or consulting market demands. |
| mutualism | individuals and cooperative groups would exchange products with one another on the basis of mutually satisfactory contracts |
| Convergence theory | explains that as a country's economy grows, its societal organization changes to become more like that of an industrialized society. |
| recession | occurs when there are two or more consecutive quarters of economic decline. |
| depression | a sustained recession across several economic sectors |
| career inheritance | simply that children tend to enter the same or similar occupation as their parents, which is a correlation that has been demonstrated in research studies |
| Globalization | to the process of integrating governments, cultures, and financial markets through international trade into a single world market. |
| global assembly lines | where products are assembled over the course of several international transactions |
| global commodity chains | where internationally integrated economic links connect workers and corporations for the purpose of manufacture and marketing |
| xenophobia | an illogical fear and even hatred of foreigners and foreign goods |
| outsourcing | ontracting a job or set of jobs to an outside source—of manufacturing jobs to developing nations has greatly diminished the number of high-paying, often unionized, blue-collar positions available. |
| automation | which replaces workers with technology, is another cause of the changes in the job market. |
| Polarization | means that a gap has developed in the job market, with most employment opportunities at the lowest and highest levels and few jobs for those with midlevel skills and education. |
| underemployment | a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than their education and experience qualifies them to perform. Second, unemployment statistics only count those |
| structural unemployment | which describes when there is a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the available jobs. |
| In which sector of an economy would someone working as a software developer be? | Quaternary |
| Which is an economic policy based on national policies of accumulating silver and gold by controlling markets with colonies and other countries through taxes and custom charges? | Mercantilism |
| The type of socialism now carried on by Russia is a form of __ socialism. | Market |
| Among the reasons socialism never developed into a political movement in the United States was that trade unions... | Secured workers' rights |
| Which country serves as an example of convergence? | Singapore |
| Which is evidence that the United States workforce is largely a meritocracy? | Highly skilled jobs pay better than low-skill jobs. |
| Which of the following is not a characteristic of multinational corporations? | They are headquartered primarily in the United States. |
| All of the following are characteristics of global cities, except: | host influential philosophers |
| Fracking | a method used to recover gas and oil from shale by drilling down into the earth and directing a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and proprietary chemicals into the rock. |
| demography | the study of populations |
| fertility rate | a measure noting the number of children born |
| mortality rate | a measure of the number of people who die. |
| population composition | a snapshot of the demographic profile of a population. |
| sex ratio | the number of men for every hundred women |
| population pyramid | a picture of population distribution by sex and age |
| carrying capacity | how many people can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources. |
| zero population growth | he number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration. |
| Urbanization | is the study of the social, political, and economic relationships in cities, |
| urban sociology | studies those relationships |
| refugee | defined as an individual who has been forced to leave his or her country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster |
| asylum-seekers | are those whose claim to refugee status has not been validated |
| internally displaced person | is neither a refugee nor an asylum-seeker. Displaced persons have fled their homes while remaining inside their country’s borders. |
| Suburbs | communities surrounding cities |
| the exurbs | communities that exist outside the ring of suburbs and are typically populated by even wealthier families who want more space and have the resources to lengthen their commute. |
| metropolis | Together, the suburbs, exurbs, and metropolitan areas . Ex: New York was the first U.S. megalopolis |
| white flight | refers to the migration of economically secure white people from racially mixed urban areas and toward the suburbs |
| Gentrification | members of the middle and upper classes enter and renovate city areas that have been historically less affluent while the poor urban underclass are forced by resulting price pressures to leave those neighborhoods |
| sustainable development | to achieve development that occurs without depleting or damaging the natural environment |
| concentric zone model | This model views a city as a series of concentric circular areas, expanding outward from the center of the city, with various “zones” invading adjacent zones |
| environmental sociology studies | the way humans interact with their environments. |
| climate change | refer to long-term shifts in temperatures due to human activity and, in particular, the release of greenhouse gases into the environment. |
| Pollution | describes what happens when contaminants are introduced into an environment (water, air, land) at levels that are damaging. |
| E-waste | the name for obsolete, broken, and worn-out electronics—from computers to mobile phones to televisions. |
| cancer cluster | a geographic area with high levels of cancer within its population |
| A functionalist would address which issue? | The way immigration and emigration trends strengthen global relationships |
| What led to the creation of the exurbs? | Urban sprawl and crowds moving into the city |
| How are the suburbs of Paris different from those of most U.S. cities? | They are synonymous with housing projects and urban poor. |
| How does gentrification affect cities? | Less affluent residents are pushed into less desirable areas. |
| The “tragedy of the commons” is a reference to what? | The common grazing lands in Oxford |
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thomasmagarian