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Unit 14 Social Psych
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Reasons for Conformity | a culture that promotes individualism is most likely to encourage nonconformity. The value of social conformity is emphasized in Asian cultures. |
| Social Facilitation (2) | the presence of others does not always lead to social facilitation because arousal encourages performance of the most likely response. |
| Norman Triplett | observed that adolescents wound a fishing reel faster in the presence of someone working simultaneously on the same task. |
| Deindividuation | Circumstances that increase self-awareness are likely to reduce deindividuation. Ex: After an exciting football game in which the home team loses by one point, a crowd of fans throws bottles and begins to tear up the field. |
| Group think (2) | overwhelming desire for harmony in a decision-making group increases the probability of groupthink. Groupthink can be prevented by a leader who invites outside experts to critique a group’s developing plans. |
| Group think (3) | Ex:A business leader who welcomes a variety of opinions from subordinates and invites experts’ critiques of her company’s developing plans would inhibit groupthink |
| Culture (2) | Cultural diversity best illustrates adaptive capacities.People are most likely to notice the impact of environmental influences on behaviour when confronted by cultural diversity. The preservation of innovation illustrates the survival value of culture. |
| Culture (3) | Ex:By inventing customs and passing them on to their peers and offspring, chimpanzees exhibit the rudiments of culture. |
| Variation over time | Western cultures have changed in: Communication systems, Scientific knowledge, Social norms Migration patterns. American women are likely to marry for the sake of love.Americans have experienced an inc in the incidence of depression+ inc in work hours. |
| Power of Individuals | To influence a majority, individuals should be self- confident and consistent in expressing viewpoints.(RI) minorities are most influential when they unswervingly hold to their own position. |
| Prejudice (2) | Prejudice is an attitude. The three components of prejudice are: Belief,Emotions, Predispositions to action |
| How prejudice are people ? | 1} On the basis of what Americans say, in the last half-century gender prejudice has decreased and racial prejudice has decreased. 2}When shown computer-generated faces, people generally prefer slightly feminized faces. |
| How prejudice are people ? (2) | 3} Cross-cultural research on gender relations indicates that people perceive their fathers as more intelligent than their mothers despite gender equality in intelligence scores. |
| Ouvert Prejudice | In several U.S. states where Black motorists are a minority of the drivers and speeders on interstate highways, they have been the majority of those stopped and searched by police. |
| Implicit Attitudes (2) | Prejudice can be subtle, automatic, and unconscious. Implicit prejudice can lead to patronization; displaying an offensively condescending manner. Implicit prejudice includes activation of the amygdala. |
| Implicit Attitude (3) | Ex. In one study, researchers found that police officers judge Black faces that appear typical of their race to be more criminal. Priming people with a flashed Black face rather than a flashed White face makes them likely to misperceive a gun |
| Social Roots of Prejudice- Social Inequalities | Prejudice develops as a way of justifying social inequalities. ExGovernment officials who emphasize that African- Americans are personally responsible for the economically disadvantaged position of their ethnic group are most likely to promote prejudice. |
| Blame the victim dynamic (2) | Ex:If poverty causes high rates of crime, the high crime rate can be used to justify discrimination against those who live in poverty. |
| In-group (2) | Compared with numerical majorities, numerical minorities are especially conscious of their social identities. |
| In-group (3) | Placing people into groups based on the arbitrary outcome of a coin toss leads people to show favouritism to their own group when dividing any rewards. |
| Scapegoat Theory (2) | According to scapegoat theory, prejudice results from frustration. Disparaging or belittling a despised outgroup provides people with a heightened sense of their own self-worth. Following 9/11, some outraged people lashed out at innocent Arab-American. |
| Other-Race Effect (2) | We overestimate the similarities among people we have sorted into a single category. We underestimate the diversity among members of an outgroup. The longer one resides among other races, the less he/she exhibits the other-race- effect. |
| Other-Race Effect (3) | People estimate the frequency of group characteristics in terms of the memorability/vivid cases of these characteristics. |
| Just-World Phenomenon (2) | People look for ways to rationalize away injustice. The just-world-phenomenon leads people to believe that victims of misfortune deserve to suffer. |
| Just-World Phenomenon (3) | ex. Only when experimental participants were informed that a woman was raped did the perceive the woman’s behaviour as inviting rape. |
| Aggression (2) | Aggression always involves the intent to hurt. Ex:A soldier who intentionally kills a dangerous enemy combatant illustrates aggression. |
| Biology of aggression (3) | 1}when a mild-mannered person has an electrode implanted in her amygdala, she developed more aggressive tendencies.2}studies have revealed diminished activity in the frontal lobes of violent criminals. |
| Biology of aggression (4) | 3} Violent male criminals have relatively low levels of serotonin and high levels of testosterone. 4} Handling and describing a gun has been found to increase testosterone in research participants’ saliva. |
| Frustration Aggression Principle (2) | A gap between modest goal attainments and very high goal expectations is most likely to trigger frustration. |
| FAP (3) | Ex (RI) on the relationship between aversive events and aggression indicates that hot temperatures often lead people to react to provocations with greater hostility. |
| Fight-Flight (2) | Stress often generates a readiness to be aggressive associated with the fight-or- flight-reaction. |
| Socio-culture factors in aggression (1) | Aggression is influence by reinforcement. Animals that have fought to get food or mates become increasingly ferocious. Aggression is a learned response. Bullying behaviour earns the attention of others. |
| Socio-culture factors in aggression (2) | Aggression is enhanced by social rejection and ostracism. Youths who are shunned and mocked by peers are likely to respond with aggression.Minimal levels of father care are associated with high levels of aggression. |
| Socio-culture factors in aggression (3) | Parents who discipline children with beating teach aggression through modelling. |
| The Rape Myth (2) | Violent pornographic movies often perpetuate the myth that many women enjoy aggressive sexual encounters. |
| The Rape Myth (3) | Ex.After watching a large number of violent pornographic movies, individuals are less likely to believe women are seriously harmed by rape and are more likely to interpret a woman’s friendliness as sexual interest. |
| Social Scripts (2) | A significant danger of media violence is that impressionable viewers are subsequently more likely to enact the social scripts provided by the media. |
| Social Scripts (3) | Ex: People heavily exposed to violent pornography are likely to engage in sexually aggressive behaviours that reflect a misleading social script. |
| Do video games teach, or release, violence ? (1) | In contrast to watching violence on television, participating in violent video games involves role- playing aggression. |
| Do video games teach, or release, violence ? (2) | Compared with their nonplaying counterparts, kids who play a lot of violent video games have been found to get into more arguments and fights. |
| Do video games teach, or release, violence ?(3) | Ex:The biopsychosocial approach emphasizes that aggressive behaviour involves the interactive influence of personal frustration, exposure to aggressive models, and heighted levels of arousal. |
| Mere Exposure Effect (2) | contributes to the positive relationship between proximity and liking. People tend to prefer a mirror image of themselves, while their friends prefer an actual version of them. |
| Mere Exposure Effect (3) | People’s preference for mirror-image photographs of themselves.(MEE) Ex:An observer is likely to express greater liking for a same- sex stranger if that person’s image has some distinctive features of the observer’s own face. |
| Physical Attraction (2) | Our first impression of people we meet are most likely to be determined by their physical appearance. People’s physical attractiveness is unrelated to their self-esteem.Ex:Jeremy Meeks mugshot. |
| Physical Attraction (3) | 1}Research on physical attractiveness indicates that babies prefer attractive over unattractive faces.2}Women are attracted to healthy-looking men, but especially to those who seem to be mature. |
| Physical Attraction (4) | 3}People with symmetrical faces are perceived as more attractive.4}Research on physical attractiveness indicates that men are more likely than women to judge members of the opposite sex as more attractive if they have a youthful appearance. |
| Passionate love (2) | Non-Western cultures have lower divorce rates and consider passionate love as less important for marriage. |
| Companionate Love | Example: Sharing household chores ranks high on a list of things people associate with successful marriages. Readily confiding your deepest hopes and fears can lead to a fulfilling marital relationship. |
| Altruism (2) | The best explanation for the inaction of bystanders during the Kitty Genovese murder is that they failed to assume personal responsibility for helping the victim. |
| Bystander Effect (2) | Diffusion of responsibility plays an important role in the bystander effect; individuals fail to act because of feelings of limited responsibility. Social psychologists have arranged for people to drop coins or pencils in elevators (BE) |
| Social Exchange Theory (2) | Ex:You donated money to a religious charity in order to boost your own feelings of self-esteem. Your friend failed to contribute to the same charity because she was afraid she would run out of money. |
| Social Responsibility Norm (2) | Ex:Gallup surveys indicate that Americans who frequently attend religious services are more likely than those who do not attend religious services to report that they are currently aiding the poor and infirm. |
| Reciprocity Norm (2) | Ex:After you receive a free gift from a religious organization, you feel obligated to mail a cash donation to the organization. |
| Conflict and Peacemaking | To a social psychologist, a perceived incompatibility of goals indicates conflict. Ex:If two countries are rivals for the exclusive control of the same area of land, their predicament illustrates conflict. |
| Social Traps (2) | Simple non-zero-sum games have been used in laboratory settings to study social traps. To help people avoid social traps, psychologists should promote an increased awareness of the social- responsibility norm. |
| Social Traps (3) | Example: Continuing to operate a fuel-inefficient car despite warnings about the effect of greenhouse gases best illustrates the dynamics of a social trap. |
| Mirror Image Perception (2) | University College London volunteers used a mechanical device to press on another volunteer’s finger, after feeling pressure on their own finger. They typically responded to the pressure on their finger with more pressure than they had just experienced. |
| Mirror Image Perception (3) | Example: You think your best friend’s silence indicates that he’s angry, so you avoid talking to him. Unfortunately, he thinks your quietness signifies that you are angry and want to be left alone. |
| Contact (1) | Noncompetitive contact between members of two different ethnic groups is likely to reduce prejudice when the contact is between individuals with equal status. |
| Contact (2) | An increase in interracial contact has been followed by more positive attitudes between South African Whites and Blacks. |
| Contact (3) | In most ethnically diverse schools, ethnic groups resegregate themselves in the lunchroom. People in each group think they would welcome more contact with the other group, but assume other groups do not reciprocate. |
| Contact(4) | Initially prejudiced heterosexuals are likely to develop more accepting toward homosexuals following the experience of face-to-face contact. |
| Cooperation (2) | Example: In one experiment, White Americans read a newspaper article about a foreign terrorist threat against all Americans. They subsequently expressed reduced prejudice to African Americans. |
| Win-win solution (2) | People sometimes fail to recognize win-win solutions. Ex: You and your sister argue about whoshould have use of the family car that night. You didn’t realize that you needed the car in the early evening and your sister needed the car in the late evening. |
| Conciliation (2) | Ex:A sincere word of apology often helps to reduce the tension between two conflicting parties. |
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fatimahaque