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Chapter 13
Psychology of Learning and Behavior
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Comparative cognition is the study of ___ across a variety of species | information processing |
| Tinbergen's "four questions" are related to the ___ of an trait and the ___ of a trait | ultimate cause; proximate cause |
| Humans have a tendency to be interested in animals and nature. According to the ___ , this is an ___ | biophilia hypothesis; inherited predisposition |
| Memory is often a matter of ___ in which one is first exposed to a stimulus and is then required to respond to that stimulus at a later time | stimulus discrimination |
| A useful procedure for studying memory is a ___ task. In it the animal is first shown a ___ stimulus and then, following some ___, is required to select that stimulus out of a group of alternative stimuli | delayed matching to sample; sample; delay |
| In a direct forgetting task, the pigeon is shown a cue during the ___ period, which signals whether the ___ stimulus needs to be ___ or can be ___ | delay; sample; remembered; forgotten |
| On directed forgetting tasks, pigeons are ___ likely to select the correct stimulus following exposure to the forget cue | less |
| When comparing Clark's nutcrackers to other corvids, the nutcracker has better ___, which is important for food storing | spatial memory |
| In a test comparing chickadees to juncos, it was found that chickadees pay more attention to the ___ of an item than to the ___ | location; color |
| The ___ is an area of the brain that is important for spatial memory, and food storing birds tend to have ___ volume in this area | hippocampus; greater |
| The case of ___ reminds us that it is often important to have testers or experiments who are ___ to the conditions or expectations of the test | Clever Hans; blind |
| Koehler used a direct ___ task in order to determine whether parrots could match cards with different ___ of items on them | matching-to-sample; numbers |
| Results from Koehler's studies indicate that some birds can distinguish ___ from ___ or ___ | quantity; volume; size |
| Using a bucket with a false bottom, researchers have determined that human infants will ___ to search if 3 items were placed in a bucket but only 2 can be seen | continue |
| Using the same bucket task, lemurs seem to track differences between placed versus found items based on ___ | proportion |
| Although small numbers seem to be tracked and understood by a variety of species, larger numbers seem to be only understood by older ___ | humans |
| Herrnstein trained pigeons to peck at pictures of trees, and not at non-trees. This is a ___ procedure | discrimination training |
| Herrnstein's study revealed that pigeons could ___ their discrimination to novel pictures of trees, which suggests that they had learned the ___ of tree | generalize; concept |
| Trevor is taller than Leah, and Leah is taller than Jeff. If you know that Trevor is taller than Jeff, then you have successfully made a ___ | transitive inference |
| When lemurs are tested for their ability to understand relationships among items, the species with the rigid social hierarchy is ___ skilled at relational decisions that the less social species | more |
| Tool use by a species is evidence of understanding relationships between objects and their ___ | effects |
| The simplest form of tool is an ___ item like a stick or rock | existing |
| Buzzards and vultures show ___ preference for the weight of rocks they use to crack open eggs. This is evidence of ___ cognitive complexity than basic tool use | some; more |
| Saving a tool for later use is common among ___ including chimpanzees, gorillas, and bonobos, but is ___ seen among other species | primates; also |
| Chimps have also shown the ability to ___ tools as well as ___ existing tools | create; modify |
| It appears that chimps learn to crack nuts through a long, gradual process of ___ | social learning |
| In order for tool use to start, there is likely some form of ___ that occurs where an items is used in a new way for the first time | innovation (or insight) |
| Camilla sees a spider near her sister Rory. Camilla knows that Rory is afraid of spiders, so she intentionally steps on the spider before Rory sees it. This intentional behavior could only occur because Camilla has ___ | theory of mind |
| Sharing or concealing information requires that you understand that you are ___ from others, and that the ___ of your mind is different from others' | separate; contents |
| The ___ and ___ task is a classic test of ___ that has been used with a variety of species including humans | mark; mirror; self-awareness |
| Poppy the chimp is using a mirror to look at her teeth and her ears. Poppy is likely older than ___ months | 28 |
| Aside from primates, other species that show evidence of self-awareness include ___ | dolphins, elephants, and magpies |
| There is considerable ___ within species for may high-level cognitive abilities. This means that ___ individuals within a species will show evidence of the ability | variance; not all |
| The ___ task is used to determine whether a child can use information correctly to ___ what someone else would know | false belief; infer |
| Julie knows that someone placed Billy's teddy bear in a box, but Billy doesn't know. When asked where Billy would look, Julie says he will look in the box. Julie is likely ___ than 4 years of age | younger |
| Using the "hidden banana" task, it has been demonstrated that chimps ___ use information about what dominant chimps know to make good decisions in a competitive task | can |
| Intentional cooperation or deception requires a ___ | theory of mind |
| In the ___ task, two animals must ___ by pulling at the same time in order to get food | rope; cooperate |
| Bonobos are ___ successful in cooperative tasks than chimps, which is likely related to the species being ___ competitive over food | more; less |
| Chimps can learn to point toward an empty container when interacting with an ___ trainer. This is evidence that chimps are capable of ___ | uncooperative; deception |
| There is a great deal of ___ evidence of misinformation among chimpanzees, but further controlled testing is necessary to determine whether this behavior is ___ | anecdotal; intentional |
| The process of sending and receiving ___ is known as ___ | signals; communication |
| Shelly sees a door that has a sign on it with a stick figure wearing a skirt. She knows that this is a women's washroom because the picture is a ___ that many people use and understand | symbol |
| The phrase "the dog bit the man" differs in ___ from the phrase "the man bit the dog" | syntax |
| If you change the word "happy" to "unhappy", you have altered the ___ content | semantic |
| The alarm calls of vervet monkeys provide evidence that they are ___ of ___ | capable; reference |
| Our closest relatives are chimpanzees, orangutans, and gorillas, knows as the ___ | great apes |
| Early attempts to teach chimpanzees to speak failed miserably, probably because chimps ___ the ___ apparatus to produce speech | do not have; vocal |
| Studies by the Gardners and others looked at whether chimpanzees could learn a symbolic, gestural language called ___ | American Sign Language |
| In ___ experiments, apes are raised in human environments | cross-fostering |
| ___ was the first chimpanzee trained in ASL | Washoe |
| Researchers found that ___ was the easiest way to teach sign language to chimpanzees. They also found ___, which involves physically placing the ape's hands in the correct position, to be an effective method | modeling; molding |
| Simply rewarding correct signs with ___ tended to produce ___ behavior that was oriented more toward producing signs than communicating with the researchers | food; reflexive |
| Almost all apes that have been trained in ASL can demonstrate ___. The ability to associate signs with particular objects or actions | reference |
| Studies of animals' ability to use symbolic languages created by researchers in a laboratory setting are known as ___ language experiments | artificial |
| The studies allowed researchers to systematically assess the language abilities of chimpanzees in ___ controlled setting than was the case with the sign language cross-fostering studies | more |
| One of the first artificial languages created was called ___ | Yerkish |
| Results of the artificial language experiments strongly suggest that many of the chimpanzees mastered ___ , but there is less evidence that they mastered ___ | reference; grammar |
| Dolphins, gorillas, and parrots are all ___ species that have relatively ___ brains, which makes them good candidates for studying language | social; complex |
| Dolphins have been taught to communicate acoustically as well as gesturally, which is evidence that they may be able to use ___ language | symbolic |
| Results in the dolphin language experiments suggest that dolphins mastered the ___ aspect of language | reference |
| BALL FETCH BASKET means the opposite of BASKET FETCH BALL to language trained dolphins. This suggests, that unlike many of the language-trained chimps, these dolphins can understand the ___ rules of language | grammar |
| biophilia hypothesis | The inherited predisposition to be drawn to or bond with nature, including other animals |
| communication | The process of sending and receiving a signal of some sort |
| comparative cognition | The study of information processing across a variety of species |
| delayed matching-to-sample | A memory task in which the animal is first shown a sample stimulus and then, following some delay, is required to select that stimulus out of a group of alternative stimuli |
| language | A special category of communication which has some key features--symbols, syntax, and semantics--that distinguish it from other forms of communication |
| numerosity | An understanding of quantity |
| reference | The ability to associate arbitrary symbols with objects or events |
| self-awareness | The ability to perceive oneself as separate from others |
| semantics | The meaning associated with symbols |
| symbol | A cue that is used to represent some experience or object that you can then share with someone else |
| syntax | The system of grammatical rules by which symbols are arranged, as well as how those symbols can be modified and interact with one another |
| theory of mind | The tendency to impute mental states to other individuals |
| transitive inference | A form of reasoning in which the relationship between two objects can be inferred by knowing the relationship of each to a third object |
| In a training procedure, subjects are given a reinforcer if they choose the higher ranking item in a pair. if A>B and B>C and C>D, then how would a ring-tailed lemur respond if asked to choose between A and D | It would choose A |
| Under what condition did the horse named Clever Hans provide the correct answer to a question | only when the questioner was visible to the horse |
| According to the operant conditioning explanation of Clever Hans' mathematical abilities, which of the following could be considered both a reinforcer and a discriminative stimulus? | The change in expression |
| Alex can't find his classroom. He stopped a stranger in the hallway to ask for directions. Because Alex asked someone else for information that Alex did not have, wee can infer that Alex has ___ | theory of mind |
| According to the operant conditioning explanation of Clever Hans' mathematical abilities, which of the following terms refers to the subtle change in facial expression that the horse seemed to be attending to | both a and c are correct (a discriminative stimulus AND a reinforcer) |
| According to Tinbergen, if you are examining a trait in order to determine how it develops in an organism, from birth until adulthood, what are you studying? | proximate mechanisms |
| A male gorilla pounds his chest and roars, and this causes other male gorillas to avoid the area or become submissive. This is an example of | communication |
| Deception and coordination of efforts (for cooperation) are typically used as evidence to indicate that an individual or species has ___ | theory of mind |
| If a species on another planet had a system of communication that involved symbols (ind the form of different squeaks) and rules (the order of the squeaks was important), would this information be enough to indicate the species had "language"? | No, because there is no evidence of semantics |
Created by:
jacob406