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Psych Text 4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the illusion of the expert? | Experts underestimate the complexity of the tasks that they do easily. |
| What are 3 examples of our lack of awareness? | 1. pitch of voice at the end of a question 2. Pime minister -> "pri not primuh minister." 3. what sound indicates that a very is past tense? |
| What are the consequences of complexity of language? | 1.hard on learners 2. hard to tell a machine how to do it. |
| Morphemes: | smallest MEANING units of language. Can not be further divided. |
| Phoneme: | smallest significant sound units in language |
| coarticulation: | phonemes overlap in normal speech |
| Consequences of coarticulation: | 1. speech we hear is ambiguous 2. can't cut and paste sounds 3. separation between words isn't obvious 4. people sound off without coarticulation |
| categorical perception | sharp boundary between phonemes (like ba and pa). hard to distinguish variations of ba and pa. Opposite of graded membership. change in some variable along a continuum is perceived, not as gradual but as instances of discrete categories. |
| Gammer and "grammatical": | Rules of language use. Fits acceptable patterns of language. |
| Syntax: and what is a example | Rules for order of words in phrases, phrases in sentences. a example is : the man was bit by the dog. the dog bit the man. NOT dog the bit man the. |
| Prescriptive words: | How ought to use language |
| Descriptive words: | How ACTUALLY use language. |
| What does it mean to say syntax doesn't mean semantics? | You can have good syntax but poor meaning. Ex is jabbwesocky. |
| What are the phase structure rules? | rules specify possible order and combos. if each role can be rewritten to produce and S, the string is grammatical. |
| phrase structure ambiguity | ambiguity in interpretation in some sentences due to multiple possible phase structures. There are 2 or more valid interpretations. |
| What is a example of phase structure ambiguity? | two sister reunite after 18 years in checkout counter. You can enjoy a bowl of soup in your sweat pants. |
| what is sentence parsing? | figuring out each word's syntactic role. |
| What is a example of a garden path sentence? | the old man the boat |
| What is a garden path sentence? | misleading, but only 1 valid interpretation |
| What is ax extreme version of linguistic relativity? | language limits of coerces thought |
| What is a mild version of linguistic relativity? | language draws attention to certain distinctions: such as 95% fat-free vs. 5% fat. and euphemisms. |
| What are 3 pieces of evidence for language universals? | 1. children learn language rules 2. there are many variations, but some patterns nearly universal across languages 3. biological mechanisms |
| Explain the evidence for language universals: 1. children learn language rules | children learn unconsciously very early with a very limited set of experiences. often despite impoverished examples. all children over regulate errors: for example "goed" for went. "runned" for ran, ect. this can't be learned by imitation. |
| Explain the evidence for language universals: 2. Many variations, but some patterns nearly universal across languages: | all languages have nouns verbs and pronouns. 99% of languages put subject before object. It is unusual to see " a bear he shot." |
| Explain the evidence for language universals: 3. Biological Mechanisms: focal aphasias | Brocas Aphasias or Wernicke's Aphasias. Normal intelligence but language difficulties |
| signs of Broca's Aphasias? | Nonfluent-hard or impossible to speak or write, ungrammatical |
| Signs of Wernicke's Aphasia? | Fluent- but word salad |
| Williams syndrome | intellectual disability with normal or above average language abilities |
| Describe what happens in the brain in Williams Syndrome | Reduced brain volume (except frontal and temporal lobes) except for LEFT hemisphere. Enlarged neurocerebellum- |
| normative/prescriptive judgment and reason/decision making | how people OUGHT to make judgments and decisions if perfectly rational |
| descriptive judgment and reason/decision making | how people ACTUALLY make judgments and decisions |
| Algorithm of how far it is here to Ravanel Bridge? | measure the actual distance |
| Heuristic of how far it is from here to the Ravanel bridge? | eye ball it. the bridge looks small, the color is slightly pale. |
| do people use heuristics for judgment? | yes |
| What is the availability heuristic? | judge frequency on the basis of the ease with which examples come to mind. |
| does the availability heuristic usually work? | usually. |
| What are 3 sources of inappropriate bias in availability? | 1. Encoding bias 2. retrieval bias 3.biased (nonrandom) samples |
| how is encoding bias a source of inappropriate bias in availability? | usually there are dramatic outcomes played up by the media and we only notice what we pay attention to. such as picking the wrong line at the grocery store. ect. |
| how is retrieval bias a course of inappropriate bias in availability? what is a example. also what are unpacking examples | example of: are there more words that start with r in the beginning or in the third position? unpacking examples: specific cues bring more examples to mind. |
| what is a unpacking example of retrieval bias? | when specific cues bring more examples to mind.a example would be how much would you pay for a policy that said "hospitalization for any reason" or "hospitalization for disease or accident." |
| how is biased nonrandom samples a source of inappropriate bias in availability? | the people that go to a psychiatrist have low self esteem. but the psychiatrist says that low self esteem is a major source of problems. however, all the people that go there have low self esteem. it is a biased nonrandom sample. |
| what are representativeness heuristics. and what is a example | people treat categories as homogeneous. judge the probability by comparing to a typical object/event. and leads to neglect of what is common vs uncommon. example would be choosing the peoples jobs from what describes them. |
| what is the consumer report vs the neighbor in the representativeness heuristic? | "i know a man who." people tend to trust small sample. but in truth large samples are more representative |
| what is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic | for number estimates, ppl start with prominent number (anchor) and adjust up and down to improve, but adjustment is insufficient, |
| do implausible anchors with in the anchoring effect? | yes |
| what is the deal with anchoring effects and punitive damage caps? | if you put a cap on damage awards, people will give more if the cap is at 50million than if there is no cap at all. the 50mill cap people gave 9mill. the no cap people gave 1 million 250 thousand |
| what are judgments of covariation | one thing allows you to product something else |
| what is and illusion of covariation | full moons and hospital visits. |
| when we judge covariation, what do we rely on? | our experience (data) and our theories |
| what is confirmation bias? | when we seek out, notice, and remember causes that fit with our theories |
| how does base rate apply to trapeze artist vs salesperson? | the sales person will have a higher base rate. |
| what is base rate neglect? | tendency to ignore base rate information when other information is there. |
| are frequencies or percentages more easily processed? | frequencies |
| how should doctors communicate; frequencies or percentages? | frequencies |
| what is a example of a inverse error? | the statement: most car accidents occur close to home. This DOES NOT mean that the further one drives from home, the safer he is. |
| what is the gambler's fallacy? | the belief that chance events have to even out in the short run. "I'm due" for a win. |
| is the hot-hand in basketball a real streak or illusionary correlation? | illusionary. there is actually no correlation between success on the last shot and the chance of making the next one. |
| what is the conjunction error? | occurs when it is assumed that specific conditions are more probable than a single general one. for example people are more probable to determine that linda is a bank teller in the feminist movement than just a regular bank teller. |
| what is a non statical answer and a statistical answer to to the rookie of the year problem? | non statical answer: media attention or pressure gets to him. Statical answer: rookie of the year is extreme, best of the best. need lot of talent and luck. it is not likely to be that lucky every year. performance will vary year to year. |
| what is regression to the mean? | whenever measurements are at least partly due to chance, extreme measurements will tend to be followed by less extreme ones. |
| what are examples of the regression to the mean? | tossing coins, sports illustrated jinx, reward vs. punishment, |
| what are 3 ways to improve judgment? | 1. data format 2.role of chance made very prominent 3.training |
| how can data format improve judgment? | say 1 out of 10 instead of 10% |
| how can making the role of chance very prominent improve judgment? | if having to choose whether someone is a engineer or lawyer given some descriptions about the person, tell the person choosing that if they were choosing from a jar containing 30 engineer and 70 lawyer which would be more likely to predict they'd choose? |
| how can training improve judgment? | place emphasis on sample size, specific lectures, whole stats course, social sciences better than natural sciences, |
| How are social sciences better than natural sciences when it comes to training as a way to improve judgment? | social sciences provide more variance/measurement error coverage. They also provide exemplars that are more applicable to real life. |
| what is deduction? | drawing conclusions from general statements |
| what is a example of deduction? | all dogs are mammals. and all mammals are animals. therefore all dogs are animals. |
| what are 2 tricky characteristics of formal logic? | 1. logic is independent of content 2. validity is independent of truth of premises. |
| what does it mean that logic is independent of content? | you have to forget what you know. if all A's are B's. and all B's are C's, then all A's are C's. in reality this is not true. but in logic it is. THERE COULD BE ANY LETTER INSERTED. |
| what does it mean to say that validity is independent of truth of premises? | that even though the premise is true it doesn't mean it is true in real life. such as: all cats are mean creatures. all mean creatures are ugly. therefore all cats are ugly. the conclusion from the premises is valid even though it is not true in real life |
| what is a syllogism? | a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two or more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true. for ex if all the premises are identical in structure therefore the conclusion should be also. |
| what is the matching strategy in syllogisms? | tendency to endorse inclusion as valid if the words in the conclusion match those in premises. |
| what is belief bias in syllogisms? | biased to claim valid if conclusion already is believed to be true, and invalid if believed to be untrue. |
| is logic independent or dependent on context? | independent |
| what is the difference between syllogisms and conditional logic? | syllogism: all, some conditional logic: if, then, only if |
| what is the watson selection task? | row of cards. each card has a letter on one side and number of other. which much you turn over to test the following statement? |
| what is a example of sufficient if? | if a cat is present, you will have a allergic attack |
| what is a example of necessary if? | if you take the final exam, you might pass the course |
| what is a example of necessary and sufficient if? | if you give me a dollar, i will you my baseball card. |
| why do people not turn over the 7 in the warden selection task? and what does it have to do with confirmation bias?? | because turning over the 7 means checking to see if the hypothesis is wrong. and people tend to show conformation bias rather than a falsification strategy. |
| why is it easier to choose the right cards in the beer example vs the vowel one? | we are social species and have cheater detection. also we have a pragmatic reasoning schemata |
| what does training in obligation and permission schemata help with? | helps with unfamiliar problems. such as the peer problem will help with and unfamiliar test problem concerning a responsible respire makes sure that no swimmers are in the pool when there is no lifeguard. |
| what are the 3 major theories of risky decision making? | 1. expected value 2. expected utility 3. prospect theory |
| what is the expected value of a choice? | (probability of a outcome) * (value of a outcome) |
| should you play the game with the higher or lower expected value? | higher |
| what is the problem with expected value? | people do not often pick the higher expected value. people often avoid risks when there is a sure gain. even when the expected value is higher for the risk. |
| what is expected utility? | similar to expected value, but the utility of a outcome is not the same as the value. P *f(V). if you inherit 10K and bill gates inherits 10K, you will be happier. this shows that utility is a diminishing function of value. |
| does expected utility predict risk aversion? | yes |
| what are the problems with expected utility? | people show risk seeking behavior when they are going to lose something. and risk aversion when they have a sure gain. this does not fit with the expected value or expected utility |
| what is the framing effect? | when the same problem results in different choices, because it is stated in a way that makes people think in terms of gains vs losses. |
| when thinking of gains, people are _____ | risk adverse |
| when thinking of losses, people are _____ | risk seeking. |
| what is the endowment effect? example mug | when you own something you want more money for it.the sellers are loss averse for the mug. |
| what are examples of the framing effect that are problematic for expected value and expected utility? | asian disease problem, medical choices, custody, and endowment effect |
| how does the prospect theory modify expected utility? (3) | 1. losses are weighted more heavily than gains 2. what counts as gains or loss is arbitrary, and depends on the context (framing) 3. people decide on the basis of subjective, psychological probabilities. |
| what does it mean that the losses are weighted more heavily than gains? | the pain of losing i more than the pleasure of winning the SAME amount. |
| what does it mean that what counts as a gain or lose if arbitrary; depends on context? | has to do with framing effects: whether you say lives saved vs lives lost, if you own something selling it feels like a loss, and saying 5% far vs. 95% fat free |
| what does it mean to say that there are subjective psychological probabilities in the prospect theory? | that somethings can not be explained by expected utility or value, therefore it is psychological in its reasoning.there is a psychological weighting of probability. |
| what would be a equation for the prospect theory | G(P) * F(V) |
| what would be a equation for the expected utility? | P * F(V) |
| what would be a equation for the expected value? | P * V |
| what does it mean to say that people tend to underweight most probabilities | 50% feels less than 50%. often large probabilities are. |
| what does it mean to overweight probabilities? | 1% feels more like 2% or more. often tiny probabilities are |
| out of the major theories of risky decision making which theory is NORMATIVE | expected utility |
| out of the major theories of risky decision making, which theory is DESCRIPTIVE | prospect theory |
| what are 2 examples of choice patterns with multi attribute decision making? | dominated decoy effect and similarity effect |
| what is the dominated decoy effect (attraction effect)? | when you add a even more expensive decoy that no one would buy.... it makes people think they are getting a bargain and will buy the expensive computer |
| what is the similarity effect? | when you add a decoy that is very similar to the lower priced one. this will split the market and therefore more people will have purchased the most expensive computer and the two less priced ones will split the market. |
| what way actually works to reduce cheating? | remind them of morals |
| what are 3 myths of judgment, reasoning, and decision making | people are truly rational. people are mostly rational, but make irrational choices at random, usually when they're rushed or distracted. and people are rational, other aren't (ppl are irrational, except for me). |
| what are examples of systematic deviations from rational though and behavior? | heuristics and psychological weightings. |
Created by:
KatieShanks