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PSY 311 EXAM 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| learning and cognition comes out of a branch of psychology called | psychophysics |
| psychophysics | uses sensory stimuli to predict behavior |
| laws | well-defined, validated relationships between independent and dependent variables |
| theories | explain why a law exists; best explanation for this relationship |
| principles | general pattern appears to be true across varying conditions; practical information that can be used to make predictions |
| learning theories | functional; specifies mathematical relationships between variables |
| cognitive theories | structural; proposes mechanisms with physical properties and mechanical actions |
| A good test can: | 1. provide support for a theory 2. falsify all alternatives |
| determinism | theory that natural and psychological phenomena are causally determined by preceding events or as part of natural laws |
| according to determinism, _______ is directed and mediated by and produced in response to social, culture, and natural environments | behavior |
| rationalism | reason and experience should be the basis for your actions, opinions, etc |
| reductionism | favoring those procedures or theories that reduce complex data and phenomena to simplest possible and also make the fewest assumptions necessary to explain a phenomena |
| reductionism focuses on maximizing ______ while minimizing bias | validity |
| skepticism | an attitude of doubting the truth of something |
| what does skepticism encourage? | 1. accountability in science 2. flexibility 3. creativity |
| perception | conscious experiences that result fro stimulation of the senses; result of a number of neural and cognitive processes |
| 3 steps of perceptual processing | 1. sensory neurons 2. sensory pathways 3. processing in brain |
| specialized cells in the eye that detect light | rods and cones |
| light enters the eye through | lens |
| where are the rods and cones located? | retina |
| sensory pathway of the eye | left and right halves of the eyes send messages to the same place, but processing occurs on opposite hemispheres of the brain relative to the eye |
| primary processing | detects and determines and interprets sensory information |
| what two structures process information first? | visual tectum and visual cortex |
| visual tectum | moving eyes |
| visual cortex | recognizing objects, forming a picture |
| secondary processing | integrating sensations together and elaborating on them using previous knowledge; occurs throughout the brain |
| how does the brain receive a 2D picture and construct a 3D image from this? | the structure of the brain explains little of how this occurs |
| 2 types of cognitive processing | 1. bottom-up 2. top-down |
| bottom up processing | starts with information received by sensory receptors |
| top down processing | processing involves person's knowledge' pure sensory info manipulated to fit this |
| Theories of Perception | 1. Template Matching 2. Interactive Activation Model 3. Word Superiority Effect 4. Feature Integration Theory 5. Recognition Bycomponents Theory |
| template matching | recognition occurs when a stimulus matches a specific, prearranged template |
| assumptions of template matching | objects are compared to pre-existing templates, either in-born or learned; similar objects matched to different templates; only exact match results in recognition (Bottom Up) |
| Interactive Activation Model | proposes that word recognition is based on activation in 3 levels: features, letters, and words |
| according to IAM theory, to read you must: | be able to recognize all of the features, 26 letters, and have a full vocabulary of words |
| IAM theory utilizes ________ recognition of combinations of features | bottom-up; this saves processing power |
| Word Superiority Effect | spelled word choice provided greatest speed and accuracy; letters are easier to identify as a part of a word rather than in isolation or mixed with other letters |
| Feature Integration Theory | object perception occurs in a sequence of stages in which features are 1st analyzed, then combined |
| 2 stages of FIT | 1. pre-attentive 2. attentive |
| pre-attentive stage of FIT | basic features perceived automatically and subconsciously |
| attentive stage of FIT | features assembled one at a time into a whole object representation, which can be stored |
| Recognition Bycomponents Theory | recognition of objects based on 3D figures called geons |
| because FIT and IAM require so many different templates for all angles of a 3D object, how does Recognition Bycomponents Theory tackle this? | 3D objects have cohesive features that make them recognizable at all angles; these features make it possible to recognize objects in "visual noise" |
| perceptual organization | the process of organizing elements of the sensory environment into separate objects |
| structuralism | approach to psychology that explained perceptions as the adding up of small elementary units called "sensations;" used physical mechanisms, but later, processing of cohesive objects was proven |
| Gestalt Psychology | perceptions emerges from the collection of sensations according to laws of perceptual organization; based on separation of figure (objects) from ground (sensory fields) |
| Gestalt Laws | 1. simplicity 2. similarity 3. good continuation 4. proximity 5. common fate 6. familiarity |
| law of simplicity | law of good figure; every stimulus pattern seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible (while still being useful and accurate) |
| law of similarity | objects that are similar are grouped together |
| law of good continuation | points that, when connected, form straight or smoothly curving lines, are seen as belonging together; lines make the smoothest path |
| law of proximity | things near to one another tend to be perceived as a group |
| law of common fate | things moving in the same direction are perceived as a group |
| law of familiarity | things are more likely to be grouped together if the groups appear familiar or meaningful |
| Two mechanisms used to make our "best guess" for observations that might not actually be there | 1. Heuristics 2. Algorithms |
| Heuristics | simple rules that fill in gaps in bottom-up data using top-down knowledge; favored by Gestalt |
| Algorithms | filling in gaps in bottom-up data by altering the way we use this bottom-up data |
| inverse projection problem | problems computers face; ambiguity of the retinal image caused by the fact that a single 2D stimulus could be produced by several 3D objects of many different sizes (to combat this, some process must select edges of the object) |
| speech segmentation problem | spaces in speech do not occur as we perceive them; top down processes create those divisions-->you don't hear the spaces in the language you don'speak |
| occular heuristic | when a large object is partially covered, we assume object behind continues |
| light from above heuristic | assumption that light is coming from above informs 3D vision (indented circles example) |
| stimulus control | law that states that the likelihood of a specific action depends on the presence or absence of stimuli in environment; of the many sensory objects we process, only some impact what we do |
| what must happen for stimulus control to exist? | perceptual processes must be able to recognize and interpret meanings |
| attention | process will allow ones thoughts or actions to focus on specific activities or features of environment; bottom-up + top-down |
| selective attention | pick out what's important and give focus there |
| cocktail party phenomenon | picking out important message from noise; studied using dichotic listening tasks |
| dichotic listening tasks | "shadowing"-repeating out loud the message they hear; two voices, one in each ear-->only attend to the right ear. More accurate in shadowing right ear |
| Broadbent's theory of selective attention | sensory messages-->sensory memory-->filter-->detector-->to memory |
| "filter" according to Broadbent | finds necessary message from sensory messages, and only lets this pass to detector |
| "detector" according to Broadbent | determines higher level characteristics and passes to memory |
| Broadbent's theory of selective attention is what type of model? | Early selection-filter step happens before the meaning of the input in analyzed |
| Split scan tasks | letters are simultaneously presented 3 times-->then they either repeat letters they heard in any order OR they repeat letters in order; results? switching between left and right ear reduced accuracy |
| Gray and Wedderburn theory of selective attention | tested shadowing the assorted words and numbers-->results? people hear verbal messages, but not numbers |
| Treisman theory of selective attention | Proposed Attenuation Theory of Attention: sensory messages-->Attenuation-->Dictionary Unit-->Memory |
| Attenuator | analyzes incoming info for physical characteristics, language, and meaning |
| "leaky filter model" | attended info passes through attenuator stronger than unattended info |
| mechanism for the leaky filter model | dictionary unit; storage for vocab which is activated by incoming messages-->thresholds for activation |
| what kind of selection model is the attenuation model? | intermediate selection model-filtering some attended and unattended before it is conscious and analyzed |
| McKay's theory of selective attention | late-selection model: used left ear to bias how input was analyzed-->influenced what the reporter leaned towards when reporting what they heard |
| Nelli Lavie 1995 | provided different conditions for testing attention; wanted to assess how different conditions, stimuli, complexity, familiarity, etc. affected selective attention |
| Green and Bavelier 2003 | manipulated task load; low-task load vs. high task load |
| low task load | use little cognitive resources, so excess room for processing |
| high task load | use all cognitive resources |
| Flanker compatibility test | utilized a distractor-->when the task load was low, the extra cognitive resources would be used to analyze the distractor. When high task load, the effect of the distractor is minimized bc there are no cognitive resources to devote. |
| attention processing can be _____ like a muscle | strengthened (i.e. video game players) |
| hemispatial visual neglect | total loss of visual attention to a field of vision, usually the left field. |
| divided attention | processes which allow multiple tasks to be attended to |
| all tasks require ____ ____, which is a limited resource | conscious attention |
| tasks initially are _______, but become more automatic | effortful |
| Schneider and Schiffrin | Studied difficult tasks and how they become automatic-->eventually accuracy increased with same time limit; THEN they tested controlled processes by asking the subjects to classify, not just recognize, what they saw (can't do it) |
| simultaneous processing is built into our ability to use.. | language |
| Stroop test | look at the text below and say the color of the text as accurately as possible |
| if a single task requires too many cognitive resources, they may not allow _______ _____ at all | divided attention-->these are called controlled processes |
| controlled processes must be completed.. | sequentially; cognitive processing is shifting back and forth between the two demanding acts-->more mistakes and slower rxn time |
| attention vs. perception | being able to perceive vs. being likely to attend to select an object for effortful processing |
| saccades | eyes moving rapidly |
| fixation | eyes will pause on an object |
| stimuli that father more looking time are said to be highly | salient |
| saliency map | uses colors to show "hot spots" of fixations |
| schemas | objects have typical meaning or importance and attention is given based on this top-down knowledge |
| Attention beyond fixation point | Egly et al.; tested whether finding a new fixation point is controlled by location of cue or identity of object at the cue-->found that rxn time is faster when cue and test stimulus were on same object |
| autism with regard to attention | studied eye tracking and where those with autism focused; they focus on not-socially relevant stimuli, so their behavior is not controlled by these social cues |
| it is unclear whether there is a causal relationship between autistic patients and.. | their withdrawn social behaviors from lack of proper attention |
| stimulus control | law which states that the likelihood of a specific action depends on the presence or absence of specific stimuli in the environment |
| delayed stimulus control | law which states that the presence of a stimulus continues to influence behavior after the stimulus is removed; this phenomenon was described using a rocedure called delayed match-to-sample (DMTS) |
| DMTS | the goal is to determine how accurate choice is depending upon how/when the sample or choice occurs |
| memory | is the collective term for processes involved in retaining, retrieving and using info after it is no longer available to the senses |
| Atkinson & Schiffrin (1968) | developed the Modal Model of Memory to explain the different levels of processing that info goes through and how each contributes to delayed stimulus control |
| Modal Model of Memory | input-->sensory memory-->short term memory (rehearsal)-->long term memory |
| sensory memory (MMM) | initial stage that holds all incoming info for seconds or less |
| short term memory (MMM) | holds 5-7 items for ~15-30 seconds information in STM can be used to guide behavior and kept fresh through rehearsal or conscious repetition |
| Long term memory (MMM) | final stage can hold many items for a long time |
| sensory memory | is a hypothetical mechanism which briefly maintains sensory inputs; this makes perception more fluid and connected in time-->two subtypes: iconic and echoic |
| iconic memory | the persistence of visual data (<1 sec) |
| echoic memory | the persistence of auditory data (<a few seconds) |
| short term memory | a hypothetical mechanism which holds incoming info so it can be accessed and used; the location of all controlled processes including conscious perception, attention, memory, etc. |
| short term memory functions are limited and work best when.. | work load is low or in automatic tasks |
| Peterson and Peterson (1959) | gave these instructions: you will hear 3 letters and a number. Count backwards from that number by 3's until I stop you. Then say the letter you heard.-->overall pattern of decay not accurate |
| Peterson and Peterson pt 2 | tested proactive interference; found two mechanisms that occur to disrupt new info (memory decay and proactive interference) |
| proactive interference | previously learned info interferes with learning new info; recall of old knowledge that promotes one response interrupts the formulation and use of newer knowledge that promotes a different response |
| memory decay | recently acquired info will weaken as time passes until they are not usable, unless rehearsed |
| Miller (1956) | tested STM capacity; Digit Span Test |
| Digit Span Test | listen to string of numbers and then recite what you heard |
| primacy effect | greater accuracy of recall for the 1st items in a list |
| recency effect | greater accuracy of recall for the last items in a list |
| chunking | grouping of small units into larger meaningful units; STM can store 20 items if arranged with 5-9 chunks |
| sensory coding | cognitive representation of an object's sensory features |
| auditory coding | sound-based features |
| visual coding | visual or spatial features |
| semantic coding | cognitive representation of an object's meaning; the way an object is coded influences how well it is maintained in STM |
| Wickens (1976) | tested semantic coding and how it contributes to remembering and forgetting things in STM; found that proactive interference is based on similarity of words & can be prevented by switching to less similar word categories |
| Modern approach to STM | Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed 3 components of STM and that there is evidence for the active manipulation of information during complex cognition |
| 3 components of STM (modern) | phonological loop, central executive, and visuospatial sketchpad |
| phonological loop | must be a system devoted to processing sound and language. Holds small amount of info for a short time. |
| Conrad (1964) | analyzed whether auditory STM can be interrupted by auditory similarity-->phonological similarity effect |
| phonological similarity effect | interference in memory for words or sounds that are familiar |
| Baddeley (1984) | tested whether auditory STM is interrupted by larger or more complex auditory stimuli-->word length effect |
| word length effect | shorter words remembered easier |
| Baddeley (1984) pt 2 | articulatory suppression |
| articulatory suppression | impairment of auditory memory produced by irrelevant talking during the retention interval |
| visuospatial sketchpad | separate mechanism bc auditory info tends to not interrupt memory for recent visual stimuli; holds certain amount of info for a certain length of times, but depends on complexity of data, the manipulation required and presence of distractors |
| Central executive | contains mechanisms that integrate different kinds of info; decides what is used, rehearsed, sent to LTM or forgotten |
| Baddeley (2000) | updated working memory model to include episodic buffer |
| episodic buffer | allows top down knowledge influence and accounts for stronger working memory performance |
Created by:
asexton_21