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Psychology
Chapters 8, 9, and 12
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| cognition | mental activity that includes both thinking and the understanding that results from thinking |
| thinking | mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world |
| analogical representations | mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects. they are analogous to the objects. images that include characteristics of actual objects. |
| symbolic representations | abstract mental representations that do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas. no real connection to actual objects. |
| concept | category or class of related items. consists of mental representations of those items. categorize items around commonalities.p |
| prototype model | way of thinking about concepts. within each category, there is a best example (prototype) for that category. form a concept around a category and choose a prototype that best represents that concept. |
| exemplar model | way of thinking about concepts. all members of a category are examples (exemplars). together, they form the concept and determine category membership. form a concept by combining all the examples of a category ever experienced by the individual. |
| stereotypes | cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups |
| what do cognitive psychologists study? | cognition. thinking and understanding. |
| how is knowledge about the world stored in the brain? | as representations |
| the method of storage using representations makes _____ possible. | thought |
| mental maps use... | both analogical and symbolic representations |
| categorization | grouping objects or events based on shared properties |
| why use categorization? | increases thinking efficiency |
| why do schemas work? | situations and appropriate behaviors follow general rules |
| scripts | schemas that guide behavior in certain situations (ex: going to the movie theater) |
| schemas and scripts are ______. | adaptive. they minimize attentional requirements. help people avoid dangerous situations. |
| what is a negative consequence of schemas and scripts? | stereotypes and biases |
| analogical or symbolic representation? a watch with a standard face | analogical |
| analogical or symbolic representation? a digital watch | symbolic |
| analogical or symbolic representation? drawing of the information in a math problem | analogical |
| analogical or symbolic representation? the word "rogue" means "red" in French | symbolic |
| analogical or symbolic representation? a photograph of your best friend | analogical |
| analogical or symbolic representation? mental image of your best friend | analogical |
| analogical or symbolic representation? a sketch of a football play | analogical |
| what is an advantage of scripts? | they provide quick and almost effortless guides to behavior in different situations. (not: they provide a flexible way of assessing different situations so each of us can decide how we want to behave in a given situation) |
| what is a disadvantage of scripts? | they can reinforce undesirable behaviors |
| which theory of intelligence is most widely accepted? | no universally accepted theory |
| decision making | attempting to select the best alternative from among several options |
| problem solving | finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal |
| normative decision theories | attempts to define how people should make decisions. most of the time, people make decisions by choosing options that will provide the greatest gain. people do not always follow this rule. |
| descriptive decision theories | attempts to predict how people actually make choice, not to define ideal choices. making decisions involves variability due to biases and irrationality. |
| heuristics | mental shortcuts. used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make a decision. rules of thumb or informal guidelines. |
| anchoring | tendency, in making judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind |
| framing | in decision making, the tendency to emphasize the potential losses or potential gains from at least one alternative. |
| availability heuristic | making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind |
| representative heuristic | placing a person or object in a category if that person or object is similar to one's prototype for that category |
| affective forecasting | tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future |
| restructuring | new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution |
| mental sets | problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past |
| functional fixedness | in problem solving, having fixed ideas about the typical functions of objects |
| insight | the sudden realization of a solution to a problem |
| what are four common heuristics? | relative comparisons, availability, representativeness, affective |
| relative comparisons | framing and anchoring |
| people prefer to have _____ choices. | more. |
| increasing the amount of choices a person has..... | decreases their decision-making ability and their satisfaction with decisions. |
| how can problem solving be improved? | breaking problems into sub-goals, restructuring the problem, working backwards from the goal, or transferring an effective strategy from an analogous situation (using an analogy) |
| what can inhibit problem solving? | mental sets and functional fixedness |
| insight can be facilitated by ___. | overcoming functional fixedness |
| true or false? according to normative theories of decision making, people use heuristics to make decisions. according to descriptive theories, people make decisions based on achieving the greatest gain. | false |
| framing, anchoring, availability, representativeness, or affective heuristic? your roommate buys meat described as 75 percent lean instead of meat described as 25 percent fat | framing |
| framing, anchoring, availability, representativeness, or affective heuristic? you plan to donate $25 to a scholarship fund, but when you receive the call for it, they ask if you will give $100. you cannot afford it, but you decide to donate $50. | anchoring |
| framing, anchoring, availability, representativeness, or affective heuristic? each year, more people die in car accidents than die in plane crashes, yet many people view planes as more dangerous than cars. | availability. plane crashes are much more "available" because they get much more media coverage. |
| framing, anchoring, availability, representativeness, or affective heuristic? when people enter into new romantic relationships, they expect their happiness to last the rest of their lives. | affective |
| framing, anchoring, availability, representativeness, or affective heuristic? you know what punk bands look/sound like. you see a photo of a new band that looks punk and assume their music is punk. when you listen to a sample, their music is dance pop. | representativeness |
| language | a system of communication using sounds and symbols according to grammatical rules |
| morphemes | smallest language units that have meaning (includes suffixes and prefixes) |
| phonemes | basic sounds of speech, the building blocks of language |
| aphasia | language disorder. results in deficits in language comprehension and production. |
| Wernicke's area | area of the left hemisphere where the temporal and parietal lobes meet, involved in speech comprehension |
| linguistic relative theory | claim that language determines (or at least influences) thought |
| telegraphic speech | tendency for toddlers to speak using rudimentary sentences that are missing words and grammatical markings but follow a logical syntax and convey a wealth of meaning |
| surface structure | in language, the sound and order of words |
| deep structure | in language, the implicit meanings of sentences |
| phonics | method of teaching reading in English that focuses on the association between letters and their phonemes. best way to teach basic reading skills, especially for those unfamiliar with reading. |
| whole language | method of teaching reading in English that emphasizes learning the meanings of words and understanding how words are connected in sentences |
| what two brain regions govern speech production and comprehension? | Wernicke's area and Broca's area |
| how does speech progress? | normally: babies coos and laughter-> babbling-> use of single words-> combination of words into telegraphic speech-> acquisition of 60,000 words |
| how did behaviorists believe language was learned? | through operant condition. |
| true or false? language is learned through operant conditioning. | false. research demonstrates that children acquire language even in the absence of reinforcement |
| Who is Noam Chomsky? | proposed that humans are born with an innate capability for language, called the language acquisition device, which contains universal grammar rules. through experience with other speakers, children acquire the rules specific to their native language |
| language acquisition device | humans are born with an innate capability for language which contains universal grammar rules. |
| for most adults, reading is ______ and _____. | automatic and effortless. |
| true or false? if a word is misspelled, we are incapable of deriving meaning from it. | false |
| whole language | method of teaching reading by emphasizing meaning of words and how they are connected in sentences. may help encourage reading. |
| dyslexia | reading disorder. causes trouble with reading, spelling, and writing. |
| true or false? people with dyslexia still have normal levels of intelligence. | true |
| true or false? In "Cells that fire together wire together," the sound of the /c/ is a phoneme. | true |
| true or false? In "Cells that fire together wire together," /that/ is a morpheme. | false. |
| true or false? In "Cells that fire together wire together," the sound of /wire/ is a phoneme. | true |
| true or false? In "Cells that fire together wire together," the syntax interprets the sentence's meaning. | false |
| true or false? In "Cells that fire together wire together," the syntax requires that /fire/ and /wire/ not be switched. | true |
| what is the correct order of these language milestones: single words, telegraphic speech, babbling, sentences of three or more words, cooing? | cooing, babbling, single words, telegraphic speech, sentences of three or more words |
| intelligence | ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental changes |
| mental age | assessment of child's intellectual standing compared to other with that of other same-aged peers. determined by comparing the child's test score with the average score for children of each chronological age. |
| IQ | intelligence quotient. index of intelligence computed by dividing a child's estimated mental age by the child's chronological age, then multiplying the number by 100 |
| g | general intelligence. idea that one general factor underlies intelligence. factor may consist of fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. |
| fluid intelligence | intelligence that reflects the ability to process information, understand relationships, and think logically, particularly in novel or complex circumstances. adaptive, flexible problem solving with unfamiliar stimuli. very basic. |
| crystallized intelligence | intelligence that reflects both the knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use that knowledge. relies on training and education. affected by environment, education, experience, ability to learn, and ability to retain information. |
| EI | emotional intelligence. form of social intelligence that emphasizes the abilities to manage, recognize, and understand emotions and use emotions to guide appropriate thoughts and actions |
| stereotype threat | apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes relation to one's own group. |
| what are the two types of standardized tests of intelligence? | aptitude tests and achievement tests |
| aptitude tests | assess ability and potential |
| achievement tests | measure accumulated knowledge |
| what are two commonly used intelligence tests? | Stanford-Binet test for children and the WAIS for adults |
| true or false? IQ is a valid measure of intelligence. | true. |
| what characteristics are important for developing expertise? | perseverance, zeal, and willingness to work long hours |
| true or false? there are no theories that suggest multiple intelligences. | false. several theories propose multiple intelligences, but more research is needed to verify whether/not it actually exists. |
| high IQ is related to... | increased speed of mental processing as measured by reaction time and inspection time tasks |
| how is working memory related to intelligence? | working memory may be related to intelligence for tasks that require attention |
| people high on fluid intelligence.. | have been found to have a greater density of neural cell bodies (gray matter) in the frontal lobes, an area of the brain that regulates working memory |
| savants... | have minimal intellectual capacities in most domains, but at a very early age, they show an exceptional ability in some "intelligent" process |
| true or false? there is no genetic component to intelligence; it all relies on environment. | false. there may be a genetic component to intelligence that involves many genes, but environment plays a large role in how intelligence is expressed. |
| how does epigenetics explain how intelligence develops? | epigenetics offers and explanation for how intelligence may develop by describing how environmental influences (enrichment and education) can permit gene expression to increase synaptic connections and brain efficiency to increase intelligence. |
| true or false? there is no overall intelligence difference between men and women. | true. BUT men tend to score higher on standardized math tests and visuospatial processing, while women often score higher on tests of writing and language use. |
| true or false? white european-americans tend to score higher than african americans on standardized tests. | true. they tend to score 10-15 points higher. there is no clear-cut basis for understanding this difference, but environmental factors likely play a large role. |
| how can stereotype threat affect test performance negatively? | negative effect on test performance caused by the belief that the test-taker's performance will reflect a negative stereotype about the test-taker's group. a few methods exist to counteract stereotype threats. |
| fluid or crystallized intelligence? solving a crossword puzzle | fluid |
| fluid or crystallized intelligence? identifying multiple uses for a pencil | fluid |
| fluid or crystallized intelligence? remembering the name of the 13th president of the united states | crystallized |
| fluid or crystallized intelligence? understanding the meaning of a sentence | fluid |
| fluid or crystallized intelligence? identifying a noun, verb, adjective, and preposition in a sentence | crystallized |
| fluid or crystallized intelligence? calculating the volume of a building that is 120 feet tall and 90 feet wide | fluid |
| fluid or crystallized intelligence? knowing the height of the Empire State building | crystallized |
| what environmental factors could affect intelligence? | being raised by caregivers of high intelligence, breastfeeding until 9 months of age, being born into a family with high socioeconomic status, going to a good school, avoiding exposure to toxins |
| how could you reduce the effects of stereotype threat? | tell test-takers to write about important personal values before they take the test |
| symbolic representation, analogical representation, or both? the word "cat: | symbolic |
| symbolic representation, analogical representation, or both? a picture of a cat | analogical |
| symbolic representation, analogical representation, or both? the mental image of a cat | both |
| symbolic representation, analogical representation, or both? the word "america" | symbolic |
| insight can often be achieved when people overcome __. | functional fixedness |
| the ____ model of teaching reading is better for poor readers than experienced ones. | phonics |
| which theory of language development suggests that people are born with an innate ability for language, called the language acquisition device? | chomsky's universal grammar theory |
| Broca's area controls.. | speech production |
| true or false? racial and sex differences in IQ test scores prove that there is a significant genetic component to intelligence. | false |
| Wernicke's area controls... | speech comprehension |
| reliability (referring to tests) | are results stable and repeatable? |
| validity (referring to tests) | is the test measuring what it claims to measure? |
| intelligence has a __ construct. | hypothetic. we can't see, touch, or really measure it. |
| cultural bias | exposure to different information. different information is valued. |
| example of crystallized intelligence | vocabulary, multiplication tables |
| Sternberg proposed... | triarchial theory |
| Triarchial Theory | there are three types of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practial |
| analytic intelligence | as proposed by the triarchial theory. traditional IQ test. problem solving, analogies, academic |
| creative intelligence | as proposed by the triarchial theory. compose music, paint. insight. think in new ways |
| practical intelligence | as proposed by the triarchial theory. day to day situations |
| Gardner | proposed multiple intelligences. linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal |
| Binet-Simon | type of intelligence test used for children. first intelligence test ever used. France. distinguishes normal from subnormal not average from above average. |
| Terman | re-wrote the Binet-Simon test to American culture and language. evaluates all ranges of functioning. american normative sample. score was IQ |
| Weschler Scales | children: WISC. adults: WAIS. scores are IQ. based on normative samples for age. average IQ is 100. standard deviation is 15. |
| developmental psychology | the study of changes, over the lifespan, in physiology, cognition, emotion, and social behavior |
| synaptic pruning | process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved and those that are not are lost. reduction of synaptic connections due to nonuse |
| teratogens | agents that harm the embryo or fetus |
| dynamic systems theory | view that development is a self-organizing process, in which new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and cultural and environmental contexts |
| infantile amnesia | inability to remember events from early childhood (before age 3 or 4). may disappear with the development of language. |
| attachment | strong emotional connection that persists over time and across circumstances |
| secure attachment | attachment style for a majority of infants. infant is confident enough to play in an unfamiliar environment as long as the caregiver is present and is readily comforted by the caregiver during times of distress |
| insecure attachment | attachment style for a minority of infants. infant may exhibit insecure attachment through various behaviors, such as avoiding contact with the caregiver or by alternating between approach and avoidance behaviors |
| prenatal period | conception through birth |
| conception | when sperm and egg unite to form zygote |
| birth occurs... | roughly 40 weeks after conception |
| embryo | from 2 weeks to 2 months prenatally |
| during embryo phase... | organ systems begin to form. vulnerable to teratogens |
| 2 months prenatally... | organ systems have formed. heart begins to beat. |
| fetus | 2 months prenatally |
| when does the brain begin to form during pregnancy? | early in fetal development. |
| during the first trimester... | myelination of the spinal cord |
| during the second trimester... | myelination of the brain |
| when are most neurons formed? | at birth, but neural development via synaptic connection continues through early adulthood. |
| ______ and _______ influence development. | genetics and environment |
| true or false? infants are incapable of learning. | false. BUT formation of explicit long-term memories does not occur until the the age of 18 months. |
| attachment | strong emotional connection that can motivate care, protection, and social support |
| Harry Harlow | research on monkeys. attachments form due to the receiving of comfort and warmth, not food. contact comfort. surrogates: wire and cloth. the clung to the cloth and went to it for comfort in times of threat. approached wire mother for food only. |
| what percentage of infants display a secure attachment style? | 65 |
| what percentage of infants display an insecure attachment style? | 35 |
| which hormone plays a role in attachment? | oxytocin |
| true or false? most neurons are present at birth. | true. |
| true or false? most organ systems are fully formed by 2 months after conception. | true. |
| true or false? over 95 percent of infants display secure attachment styles. | false. |
| true or false? due to infantile amnesia, infants cannot learn. | false |
| assmiliation | process by which new information is placed into an existing scheme. use an existing scheme to deal with new information or experiences. |
| accomodation | process by which a new scheme is created or an existing scheme is drastically altered to include new information that otherwise would not fit into the scheme. adjusting schemes to take account of new info and experiences. |
| sensorimotor stage | first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. 0-2 years. infants acquire info about the world through their senses and motor skills. reflexive responses develop into more deliberate actions through the development and refinement of schemes |
| object permanence | the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen |
| preoperational stage | second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. 2-7 years. children think symbolically about objects, but they reason based on intuition and superficial appearance rather than logic. |
| concrete operational stage | third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. 7-12 years. children begin to think about and understand logical operations and they are no longer fooled by appearances |
| formal operational stage | final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. 12 years old-adulthood. people can think abstractly, and they can formulate and test hypotheses through deductive logic. |
| theory of mind | ability to understand that other people have mental states that influence their behavior. developed by 15 months. related to the development of the frontal lobes |
| preconventional level | earliest level of moral development. self-interest and event outcomes determine what is moral |
| conventional level | middle stage of moral development. strict adherence to societal rules and approval of others determine what is moral. |
| postconventional level | highest stage of moral development. decisions about morality depend on abstract principles and the value of all life. |
| social intuition model | idea that moral judgments reflect people's initial and automatic emotional responses |
| Piaget believed that ______ development occurs across four stages. What are they? | cognitive. sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational |
| scheme | cognitive categories used to organize information |
| Piaget's theory underestimates... | early knowledge. ex- infants can use laws of physics and even demonstrate a basic understanding of addition and subtraction. |
| Vygotsky's theory | cognitive development is guided by cultural expectations and interactions with others |
| Kohlberg's theory | moral reasoning. moral decisions are based on trying to avoid personal harm, trying to gain approval from others, or having true moral concern for the sanctity of life |
| why are theories of moral reasoning criticized? | for being gender and culture biased and for ignoring emotional aspects of moral decisions |
| social nutritionist model | moral judgments reflect automatic emotional responses rather than conscious decisions based on moral rules |
| what brain areas are involved in moral thinking? | prefrontal cortex, insula, amygdala |
| concrete operational, formal operational, preoperational, or sensorimotor? children can think about objects and can play symbolically. | preoperational |
| concrete operational, formal operational, preoperational, or sensorimotor? children can think abstractly and form hypotheses. | formal operational |
| concrete operational, formal operational, preoperational, or sensorimotor? object permanence develops along with first schemes. | sensorimotor |
| concrete operational, formal operational, preoperational, or sensorimotor? children show evidence of logical thinking, but still cannot think about abstract concepts. | concrete operational |
| true or false? according tot eh social intuitionist model, morality develops as cognitive ability increases. | false. |
| true or false? according tot eh social intuitionist model, morality is learned through interactions with peers and parents. | false. |
| true or false? according tot eh social intuitionist model, emotions influence moral decisions. | true. |
| true or false? according tot eh social intuitionist model, emotions are learned through operant conditioning. | false. |
| puberty | onset of sexual maturity that marks the beginning of adolescence |
| gender identity | personal beliefs about whether one is male or female |
| gender roles | characteristics associated with males and females because of cultural influence or learning |
| what factors affect the timing of puberty? | biology and environment |
| how are physical changes stimulated during puberty? | hormonal changes |
| true or false? frontal lobes mature faster than brain reward systems. | false. |
| why may adolescents act more impulsively and take more risks? | because frontal lobes mature slower than brain reward systems |
| true or false? adolescence is not characterized by as much emotional turmoil as is commonly believed. | true. |
| Erikson | proposed theory of psychosocial development. describes series of challenges individuals must overcome from birth through old age. |
| what is the "challenge" that has to be overcome during adolescence according to Erikson's theory? | develop and adult identity |
| what can prompt adolescents to question their identities? | physical and cognitive changes. environmental and societal pressures to prepare for the future. |
| when does gender identity develop? | during adolescence |
| gender identity and gender roles are strongly influenced by.. | biology and environment |
| ethnic identity may be an important part of.... | an adolescent's sense of self, especially if their particular ethnic group struggles within the dominant culture. |
| adolescents use peer groups to... | help them feel a sense of belonging and acceptance. |
| parents influence... | peer group identification, religious choices, and values. |
| true or false? family conflict during adolescence has developmental advantages for teens. | true. |
| What does the case study of Bruce/Brenda show? | gender identity has a strong biological component |
| adulthood requires people to face certain challenges, such as... | physical and cognitive challenges, getting married, and raising a family |
| in general, married people are ____ and _____ than those who are single or cohabiting. this is more pronounced in men or women? | happier and healthier. men. |
| what keeps marriages happy and satisfying? | effective communication. especially after the birth of children. |
| as people age, they increasingly... | seek meaning in their lives |
| what can make all phases of adult development rewarding? | thoughtful planning and social support |
| true or false? older adults are often characterized as feeble and senile. | true, but they are for the most part healthy, alert, and vital. |
| are older people or younger people more satisfied with their lives? | more often, it is older people |
| true or false? people generally maintain their intelligence into very old age. | true. despite declines in memory and speed of mental processing. |
| how can one keep their mental skills sharp? | engaging in social, physical, and mental activities |
| true or false? measures of fluid intelligence decline during adulthood. | true |
| true or false? marital satisfaction tends to decline after the birth of a child. | true |
| true or false? older people often report less satisfaction with their lives than younger people. | false. |
| true or false? the frontal lobes of the brain shrink throughout adulthood. | true |
| true or false? people who engage in physical and mental exercise tend to show less cognitive decline as they age. | true. |
| a one-week old infant normally can... | differentiate between sweet and nonsweet tastes, grasp a caregiver's finger, orient toward loud sounds, turn his/her head toward the smell of the mother's breastmilk, turn a nipple toward his/her mouth |
| a one-week old infant normally cannot... | display social smiles, make eye contact, recognize his/her name, roll over from stomach to back, see a caregiver from across the room, |
| what are some challenges of Piaget's theory? | children can move back and forth between stages when working on tasks, babies can demonstrate object permanence in the first few months of life, and children younger than 3 can understand the concepts for "more than" and "less than" when using M&Ms |
| three cubes were covered by a panel. three more cubes appear to move behind the panel. once the panel is lifted, only three cubes appear. how could a 9 month old react to this? | the infant would stare at the three remaining cubes for a relatively long time |
| you read a young child a story where emma bites schuyler because he called her a mean name. the child responds saying "Emma better not bite again if she doesn't want to be bitten back!" is this preconventional, conventional, or postconventional? | preconventional |
| you read a young child a story where emma bites schuyler because he called her a mean name. the child responds saying "Even if someone hurts us, it's never okay to bite them back." is this preconventional, conventional, or postconventional? | postconventional |
| you read a young child a story where emma bites schuyler because he called her a mean name. the child responds saying "It is wrong to bite people. Emma is going to get a time out!" is this preconventional, conventional, or postconventional? | conventional |
| critical/sensitive period | biologically determined time period. able to acquire certain skill or knowledge. |
| infant perception | poor visual acuity for distant objects, responsive to high contrast, color vision |
| what are some infant research techniques? | preferential-looking technique, orienting reflex, overt behaviors such as kicking |
| preferential-looking technique | infant research. more interesting=look longer |
| orienting reflex | infant research. new item=pay attention to it. habituated item=not so much attention. |
| overt behaviors | infant research. memory study using mobiles over crib. kicking. |
| Conrad Lorenz | geese imprinted on him at birth. followed him as if he was their mother. attachment in other species. |
| Mary Ainsworth | strange-situation test. attachment styles |
| strange situation test | observe test through one way mirror. playroom on other side. separations and reunions between the child and the caregiver or the other adult (friendly but unfamiliar). secure v avoidant v anxious/ambivalent. |
| secure child | child is distressed when the attachment figure leaves. quickly comforted when the attachment figure returns. |
| insecure/avoidant child | not distressed when the attachment figure leaves. avoids the attachment figure when he/she returns. |
| anxious/ambivalent child | inconsolably upset when the attachment figure leaves. seek and reject caring contact. |
| John Bowlby | attachment theory. attachment motivates infants/caregivers to stay in close contact. infants have innate attachment behaviors that motivate adult attention. dynamic relationship facilitates survival for the infant and parental investment for the adult. |
| orphanage studies | children who received limited contact and interaction displayed problems similar to those seen in Harlow's monkeys. problems in physical development, cognitive functioning, social skills, emotional displays, and brain damage. |
| baby's schemes | behavioral schemes. physical activities. structured by simple actions that can be performed on objects. sucking, looking, grasping |
| older children's schemes | include strategies and plans for solving problems |
| example of assimilation | child just learned the word 'car' to identify the family's car. now all moving vehicles on the road are called 'cars.' including motorcycles and trucks. |
| example of accomodation | child soon learns that motorcycles and trucks are not cars and fine-tunes the category to exclude motorcycles and trucks. |
| deferred imitation | imitation that occurs sometime after the behavior is demonstrated to the child. ability to mentally represent reality. seen toward the end of the sensorimotor period |
| mean-end behavior | intentional use of an action to achieve a goal. infant coos to make person stay near. seen near the end of the sensorimotor period |
| egocentrism | preoperational stage. difficulty taking another's point of view |
| animism | preoperational stage. attribute life to inanimate object |
| artificialism | preoperational stage. everything is product of human creation |
| centration | preoperational stage. focus on one characteristic to the exclusion of others |
| difficulty with seriation | preoperational stage. difficulty putting things in order |
| magical thinking | preoperational stage. attribute life to inanimate objects |
| failure to conserve | preoperational stage. conservation: knowledge that the amount of something stays the same unless something is added or taken away. |
| seriation | concrete operational stage. can order stimuli along quantitative dimension (example: stick length) |
| reversibility | can during concrete operational stage. |
| conservation | can during concrete operational stage. |
| decentration | can during concrete operational stage. |
| abstract | formal operational stage. evident in verbal problem solving ability. if a=b and b=c, then a=c. |
| hypothetical-deductive reasoning | formal operational stage. develop hypotheses/best guesses and systematically deduce/conclude which is the best path to follow in solving a problem |
| social psychology | study of how people influence other people's thoughts, feelings, and actions |
| outgroup homogeneity effect | tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members. tendency to perceive outgroup members as stereotypically more similar than ingroup members are. people also tend to dehumanize members of outgroups |
| social identity theory | idea that ingroups consist of individuals who perceive themselves to be members of the same social category and experience pride through their group membership. social identity is based on identification with an ingroup. |
| ingroup favoritism | tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup. pervasive. may reflect evolutionary pressure to protect both self and resources. |
| social facilitation | idea that the presence of others generally enhances performance |
| deindividualiation | state of reduced individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards. this phenomenon may occur when people are part of a group. |
| group polarization | process by which initial attitudes of groups become more extreme over time |
| group think | tendency of groups to make bad decisions when the group is under pressure, facing external threats, and is biased |
| social loafing | tendency for people to not work as hard in a group than when working alone |
| conformity | altering of one's behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people's expectations. results from normative influence and informational influence. influenced by group size and unanimity. |
| normative influence | tendency for people to conform in order to fit in with the group |
| informational influence | tendency for people to conform when they assume that the behavior of others represents the correct way to respond |
| social norms | expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior |
| compliance | tendency to agree to do things requested by others. influenced by mood and strategies such as the foot in the door and door in the face techniques. |
| foot-in-the-door effect | idea that if people agree to a small request, they become more likely to comply with a large and undesirable request |
| obedience | a person follows the orders of a person of authority. influenced by personality and by proximity to the authority figure. |
| people readily identify ______, to which they belong, and _____, to which they do not belong. | ingroups, outgroups |
| ingroup and outgroup formation and maintenance are affected by..... | reciprocity and transitivity |
| reciprocity | if person a helps person b, person b will help person a |
| transitivity | friends having the same opinions towards other people |
| which part of the brain is involved in thinking about other people? | medial prefrontal cortex. higher levels of medial prefrontal activity when people evaluate ingroup members than when they evaluate outgroup members. |
| which phenomena demonstrate the influence of the group on the individual? | social facilitation, social loafing, deindividualization, group polarization, and groupthink |
| what are some forms of social influence? | conformity, compliance, obedience |
| deindividualization, group polarization, social facilitation, or social loafing? lack of self-awareness has a disinhibiting effect, allowing people to act in ways that are inconsistent with their beliefs and values. | deindividualization |
| deindividualization, group polarization, social facilitation, or social loafing? people make less individual effort when their efforts are pooled thanwhen they work alone. | social loafing |
| deindividualization, group polarization, social facilitation, or social loafing? over the course of group discussion, individuals become increasingly committed to attitudes they held before the group discussion. | group polarization |
| conformity, obedience, or compliance? bettina decides to join facebook because all of her friends have already created profiles. | conformity |
| deindividualization, group polarization, social facilitation, or social loafing? elisa says to her son "wash the dishes before you go out and play." he does so. | obedience |
| deindividualization, group polarization, social facilitation, or social loafing? a man goes to the store to make copies. there are long lines at all of the copiers. he asks a woman to let him go next because he only needs to make one copy. she says yes. | compliance |
| to form teams for a Frisbee tournament, the players were either given a blue or a red shirt. How does ingroup/outgroup theories apply to this situation? | players wearing one color shirt will see those wearing the other color shirt as extremely similar to each other. female group members will be more likely than male members to form ingroup biases. |
| aggression | any behavior that involves the intention to harm another. fundamental of human behavior |
| prosocial behaviors | actions that tend to benefit others, such as doing favors or helping |
| altruism | providing help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so |
| inclusive fitness | an explanation for altruism that focuses on the adaptive benefit of transmitting genes, such as through kin selection, rather than focusing on individual survival |
| bystander intervention effect | failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when other people are present. Kitty Genovese story |
| what are some situational factors that lead to negative emotions? | social rejection, fear, heat, and pain. they influence aggression. |
| MAOA gene and serotonin levels are important for.. | the control of aggressive behavior |
| is there any correlation between aggression and testosterone? | yes. moderately |
| which cultures are prone to higher levels of violence? | societies that subscribe to a culture of honor |
| prosocial behaviors... | maintain social relations. |
| altruistic behaviors are motivated by.. | selfishness. people help others to pass on genes or to increase the likelihood that others will reciprocate when help is needed. |
| when is bystander apathy most likely to occur? | when people are in ambiguous situations, can remain anonymous, and perceive risk in helping others. apathy means lacking interest. |
| what can increase harmony across groups? | cooperation and working toward superordinate goals |
| biological, situational, or social/cultural explanation for aggression? individuals engaging in aggressive or violent behavior have been found to have high levels of testosterone. | biological |
| deindividualization, group polarization, social facilitation, or social loafing? levels and types of violence vary across cultures | sociocultural |
| deindividualization, group polarization, social facilitation, or social loafing? physical violence is more prevalent in the southern united states than in the northern united states | sociocultural |
| deindividualization, group polarization, social facilitation, or social loafing? mutations in the MAOA gene have been found in highly aggressive individuals | biological |
| bystander apathy? college student in academic building late on Friday afternoon. almost everyone has gone home for the weekend. she sees a professor lying in the hallway. his breathing is shallow and he is grasping his chest. | no. no ambiguity, no opportunity to diffuse responsibility, no anonymity |
| bystander apathy? driver hurrying to meeting sees man hovering over a woman sitting on a park bench. man is shaking his fist violently. woman is looking up at him with terror in her eyes. | yes. high cost to benefit ratio. driver can remain anonymous. opportunity for diffusion of responsibility |
| bystander apathy? college students walking across campus after a night on the town. they come across a person that appears to be homeless curled up on the sidewalk. his eyes and mouth are open but he does not seem alert. | yes. situation is ambiguous. opportunity for diffusion of responsibility |
| attitudes | people's evaluations of objects, of events, or of ideas. formed through direct experience. influenced by familiarity (mere exposure effect). may be shaped by conditioning and socialization. |
| mere exposure effect | idea that greater exposure to a stimulus leads to greater liking for it |
| explicit attitudes | attitudes that a person can report |
| implicit attitudes | attitudes that can influence a person's feelings and behaviors at an unconscious level |
| cognitive dissonance | uncomfortable mental state resulting from a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior. |
| persuasion | active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message |
| elaboration likelihood model | idea that persuasive messages lead to attitude changes in two ways, via the central route or via the peripheral route. |
| attitudes best predict behavior when... | they are strong, personally relevant, specific, formed through personal experience, and easily accessible. |
| which type of attitude is a better predictor of behavior? | in socially sensitive situations, implicit attitudes predict behavior better than explicit. |
| how can people reduce cognitive dissonance? | changing attitudes or behaviors. rationalizing/trivializing the discrepancy. |
| central route | involves careful thought about the message. produces stronger and more persistent attitude change than persuasion through the peripheral route. |
| peripheral route | relies on peripheral cues, such as attractiveness of the person making the argument |
| cognitive dissonance, conditioning, mere exposure effect, persuasion, or socialization? Miwa gets home from her first day of school ever. she tells her parents she doesn't like her teacher. Weeks later, she tells her parents she really likes her teacher. | mere exposure |
| cognitive dissonance, conditioning, mere exposure effect, persuasion, or socialization? arnie wears his seatbelt because his parents taught him to when he was a child. | persuasion and socialization |
| cognitive dissonance, conditioning, mere exposure effect, persuasion, or socialization? given the choice between a coke or pepsi, Bob chooses a coke. later, he watches a TV show and realizes that coca-cola is one of its sponsors. | conditioning |
| cognitive dissonance, conditioning, mere exposure effect, persuasion, or socialization? Sam proclaims her love of coffee to her date. Yet, when they go to a cafe, Sam orders an italian soda. | cognitive dissonance |
| attitude predict subsequent behavior? Badu thinks its somewhat important to vote. Later, a friend asks him if he would like to go to the polling place with him. | no. attitude is not strong. |
| attitude predict subsequent behavior? when asked how she feels about eating fast food, Brooke immediately looks disgusted and proclaims "Ew!" Later, a friend asks her to go grab lunch at a popular fast food joint. | yes. attitude is strong and highly accessible |
| attitude predict subsequent behavior? Zane writes a blog entry advocating justice. Later, a friend asks Zane to attend a protest supporting an increase in the wages earned by mirgrant farm workers. | no. attitude lacks specificity |
| nonverbal behavior | facial expressions, gestures, mannerisms, and movements by which one communicates with others |
| attributions | people's explanations for why events or actions occur |
| personal attributions | explanations of people's behaviors that refer to their internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts |
| situational attributions | explanations of people's behavior that refer to external events, such as weather, luck, accidents, or other people's actions |
| fundamental attribution error | in explaining other people's behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors. favor personal attributions over situational attributions in explaining others' behaviors. |
| prejudice | negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype |
| discrimination | inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people as a result of prejudice |
| modern racism | subtle forms of prejudice that coexist with the rejection of racist beliefs. developed as people have learned to inhibit the public expression of their racist attitudes. |
| social interaction requires people to... | form impressions of others |
| people are highly sensitive to what kind of information? | nonverbal. people can develop accurate impressions of others on the basis of very thin slices of behavior. |
| personal and situational attributions help to... | explain behavior. |
| actor/observer discrepancy | people's tendency to make personal attributions when explaining other people's behavior and situational attributions when explaining their own behavior |
| stereotypes result from... | the normal cognitive process of categorization and may be positive, neutral, or negative |
| prejudices are developed and discrimination occurs against... | members of the outgroup |
| true or false? stereotypes can be inhibited. | true. |
| example of inhibited stereotypes: | presenting people with positive examples of negatively stereotyped groups. |
| how can prejudice/discrimination be reduced? | sharing superordinate goals that require cooperation, imagining positive interactions with outgroup members, and engaging in perspective taking and perspective giving |
| personal attribution, situational attribution, or fundamental attribution error? Max was arrested for driving while under the influence. He says "Nobody would give me a ride home. I couldn't sleep at the bar, so I had no other option." | situational attribution |
| personal attribution, situational attribution, or fundamental attribution error? Max was arrested for driving while under the influence of alcohol. Max's friend says "Max is an irresponsible and selfish jerk." | personal attribution. may be an example of fundamental attribution error |
| stereotyping, prejudice, or discrimination? "People from New York City are loud and obnoxious." | stereotyping |
| stereotyping, prejudice, or discrimination? "What can I say, I just don't like people from New York City." | prejudice |
| stereotyping, prejudice, or discrimination? Walter refuses to do business with a firm from New York City. | discrimination |
| passionate love | state of intense longing and [sexual] desire |
| compasionate love | strong commitment based on friendship, trust, respect, and intimacy |
| people are attracted to individuals.... | with whom they have frequent contact, with whom they share similar attributes, who possess admirable characteristics, and who are physically attractive |
| men are attracted to... | physical signs of youth and fertility |
| women are attracted to... | signs of dominance, strength, and earnings potential. these signs may include faces with a higher width-to-height ratio |
| what kind of faces do people find most attractive? | "average" and symmetrical |
| true or false? physically attractive people experience more overall happiness. | false. physically attractive people experience many social benefits, but they do not report greater happiness. |
| true or false? passion fades. | true. passion tends to fade, but the development of friendship, support, and intimacy over time contributes to the stability of romantic relationships. |
| what contributes to the stability of a couple's relationship? | how they handle conflict |
| maladaptive strategies for coping with interpersonal conflict: | being overly critical, holding a partner in contempt, being defensive, and mentally withdrawing |
| which couples are report higher levels of marital happiness? | couples that attribute positive outcomes to each other and negative outcomes to situational factors |
| passionate or compassionate love? longing to be together | passionate |
| passionate or compassionate love? associated with dopamine reward systems | passionate |
| passionate or compassionate love? friendship | compassionate |
| passionate or compassionate love? develops slowly over time | compassionate |
| passionate or compassionate love? strong commitment to care for and support one's partner | compassionate |
| passionate or compassionate love? sexual desire | passionate |
| passionate or compassionate love? trust and respect | compassionate |
| Christ finds a receipt in Sam's purse for a $200 pair of pants. Because they are on a tight budget, he becomes angry with her. Chris confronts her. How can they handle this to ensure that they have a lasting relationship? | Sam replies "I understand why you're upset. I really do need a new pair of pants, but I don't need a $200 pair of pants, so I'll return them tomorrow and get a less expensive pair." |
| Jordan and Jane receive a letter from the IRS saying they owe $3,000 in back taxes because of an error in the documents their accountant filed a few years ago. How can they handle this to ensure that they have a lasting relationship? | Jordan notes, "The accountant made this error, and now we have to come up with the money to pay for it! Well, good thing we've been saving." |
| illusory correlation, ingroup favoritism, or outgroup homogeneity? A first year college student states "Students at our college are so unique! Each person has his or her own passions attitudes." | ingroup favoritism |
| illusory correlation, ingroup favoritism, or outgroup homogeneity? A professor mistakenly comments to a colleague "The athletes in my class always seem to ask for extensions on their homework. None of my regular students ask for extensions." | illusory correlation |
| illusory correlation, ingroup favoritism, or outgroup homogeneity? A senior at college A tells her friend "Whatever you do, don't go to parties at college B. They all drink too much, and the guys can't keep their hands off the girls." | outgroup homogeneity |
| Dorm A and Dorm B are rivals and have begun to destroy property and harass outgroup members. Which suggestion would be most effective to ease the tension? | "We can hold an all-campus competition, where teams of dorms would compete for prizes. Dorm A and Dorm B could be on one team, and Dorm B and Dorm C could be on the other team." |
| Why do people form groups? | enhanced capacity to obtain food and other resources, fundamental need to belong, and to create social identity |
| what could be an explanation for ingroup favoritism? | outgroup members could be "foes" and so supporting them could be to the detriment of the ingroup |
| Which phenomena explain the bystander intervention effect? | perceived risk as greater than perceived benefits, diffusion of responsibility, unclear situation and unsureness of the correct response, and anonymity |
| according to ________, persuasion is more effective if the message requires consideration and deep cognitive processing rather than relying on attractive spokespeople and emotional pleas. | elaboration likelihood model |
| Tanya has an organization. Everyone in the organization supports the cause, but she cannot find anyone to make phone calls for donations one hour per night. What strategies might help her to get people to sign up? | ask people to sign up for 6 hours and when they say no suggest one hour. ask people to bring in cookies and when they say yes ask them to make phone calls. ask people to make calls for 15 minutes and when they say yes, ask them to extend their time. |
| Soloman Asch did which study? | conformity. length of line. people gave wrong line lengths. |
| conformity study by Soloman Asch | match the length of the line. confederates gave wrong answer, 3/4 of participants gave the wrong answer, conforming. people tend to conform to social norms, even when they are obviously wrong. |
| Stanley Milgram did which study? | conformity study. obedience to authority. |
| conformity study Stanley Migram | teach list of words using shocks. mistake=increase shocks. fewer than 1/3 of people could give the shocks. most tried to quit, but 2/3 obeyed and gave the shocks. |
| what was the conclusion of Stanley Migram's study? | most people will obey even hideous orders from insistent authority figures. personal responsibility lessened willingness. |
| Kurt Lewin did which study? | leadership styles, affect group behavior |
| What groups formed in Lewin's study? | autocratic, laze faire, democratic |
| Lewin, autocratic | group of boys was more productive, but only when the leader was present. boys were more aggressive |
| Lewin, laze faire | group of boys was not very productive. little was accomplished. chaotic. |
| Lewin, democratic | a lot was accomplished. mutually working together |
| Philip Zimbardo's did which study? | stanford prison study |
| Stanford Prison Study outcomes: | illusion became reality. nice kids became brutal guards. healthy kids became sick (prisoners). active kids became passive (prisoners). |
| IRB board in relation to Zimbardo's study: | the experiment was stopped after two weeks because of the negative effects. IRB boards now have stricter standards for safeguarding subjects. study would never have been passed today. |
| Tom Moriarty did which study? | helping behavior |
| Helping behavior study if no one was asked to watch: | the radio was left unsupervised at the beach, no one did anything when the confederate walked by and took the radio |
| Helping behavior study if someone was asked to watch: | experimenter asked the stranger to watch the radio. the person felt responsible for the radio and did something about it being taken. |
| fundamental attribution error - behavior of others | attributed to their innate personality characteristics |
| fundamental attribution error - behavior of self | attributed to the situation |
| contributing factors in fundamental attribution error | our culture emphasizes 'individuality.' we have trouble admitting to ourselves how easily we are manipulated by social situations. |
| Jane Elliot did which study? | prejudice |
| prejudice study | elementary school teacher in Iowa told kids that brown eyes were inferior, and they were labeled with a collar. |
| what was the point of the prejudice study? | it is easy to CREATE prejudice over the smallest differences. it is easy to alter objective reality and substitute an alternative reality of the world. |
| true or false? cults are religious. | false. cults are not just religious. |
| what are some characteristics of cults? | you are not allowed to be yourself, cloned into the image of the leader, individual strengths are minimized, use of thought stopping |
| thought stopping | behavioral technique used to shut down any negative thoughs, former Moonie in the class video talked about this |
| positive power of situation | vision. both groups pretested vision. 1: reading numbers while in the plane in a pilots uniform. 2: reading numbers while in a broken flight simulator. group 1 did better on the second test in the simulator. |
| which study did Eliot Aronson do? | jigsaw classroom |
| jigsaw classroom | students work together in mix-race/sex groups. each member is an expert on one part of job. experts get together to master material. then go back to original group and teach other members. cooperate outside/within the group. all members equally valuable. |
| jigsaw classroom outcomes | more positive treatment of other ethnicities. material learned better. higher performance levels. jigsaw classrooms learn to like each other more/develop higher self-esteem. quiet students become involved. not smart students till master/teach material. |
| pygmalion effect | robert rosenthal. greater expectations lead to better performance (students). form of self-fulfilling prophecy |
| self-fulfilling prophecy | people internalize their label and succeed accordingly |
| teachers interact differently with students | climate factor (warmer), input factor (teach more material), response opportunity factor (call on more), feedback factor (higher praise, differential feedback) |
| Kitty Genovese | walking home from work in NYC. safe part. attacked her for half an hour. killed her. none/few of the witnesses of the crime helped or called the police. |
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Leelanicole28