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Dev
final exam
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Nature | a general term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception. |
| Nurture | A general term for all the environmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived. |
| The nature vs. nurture debate | how much of any characteristic, bx, or emotion is the result of genes and how much is the result of experience? We know both play a role. |
| Dynamic-systems theory | Plasticity is basic to our contemporary understanding of dev. the idea is that dev is ongoing, ever changing interaction b/w the body and mind and b/w the individual and every aspect of the environment, including all the systems in the ecological approach |
| Dynamic-systems theory part 2 | the word dynamic: physical contexts, emotional influences, the passage of time, each person, and every aspect of the ecosystem are always interacting. |
| dynamic systems theory part 3 | urges consideration of all interrelated aspects, every social and cultural factor, over days/yrs. Plasticity and the need for a dynamic systems approach are evident when considering the actual lived experience of each person. |
| Dynamic systems theory part 4 | the crucial understanding is that dev is never static but always affected by, and affects. many systems of dev. |
| Dynamic systems theory (glossary) | a view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing, interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society. |
| lifespan perspective | an approach to the study of human dev that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood. Dev is multidirectional, multicontextual, multicultural, multidisciplinary and plastic. |
| Multi-directional | change occurs in every direction, not always in a straight line. Gains and losses, predictable growth, and unexpected transformation are evident. |
| critical period | a time when a particular type of dev growth (in body or bx) must happen if it is ever going to happen. |
| sensitive period | a time when a certain type of dev is most likely to happen or when it happens most easily. |
| multi-contextual | physical (climate, noise, etc.), family (marital status, family size, etc.), community (urban, suburban, rural, multiethnic or not, etc.). Human lives are embedded in many contexts, including historic conditions, economic constraints, and family patterns. |
| multi-cultural | in order to learn about "all kinds of people, everywhere, at every age (part of defining the science of human dev)." it is necessary to study people of many cultures, Many cultures, not just b/w nations but also within them, affect how people dev. |
| Multi-disciplinary | numerous academic fields, especially psychology, biology, education, and sociology, but also neuroscience, economics, religion, anthropology, history, medicine, genetics, and many more, contribute insights. |
| plastic | every individual, and every trait w/in each individual, can be altered at any point in the life span. change is ongoing, although it is neither random nor easy. |
| Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model | view that in study of human dev, person should be considered in all contexts and interactions that constitute life. The three nested levels are the microsystem, exosystem and the macrosystem. The parts that are dimensional are chronosystem and mesosystem. |
| Microsystem | each person's immediate surroundings, such as family and peer group. |
| Exosystem | local institutions such as school and churches. |
| Macrosystem | the larger social setting, including cultural values, economic policies, and political processes. |
| Chronosystem | time and age. (time system) |
| Mesosystem | the connections among the other systems. |
| Culture | a system of shared beliefs, norms, bxs, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social bx and assumptions. Thus, Culture is far more than food or clothes; it is a set of ideas, beliefs, and patterns. |
| Mirror Neurons | Cells in an observer's brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer were actually performing the action. |
| Mirror neurons (monkeys & adult brain) | About 2 decades ago, scientists noticed that when one monkey saw another reach for a banana, the same brain areas were activated in both monkeys. Mirror neurons are found in several parts of the adult human brain. |
| Mirror neurons (baby) | A baby's learning by observation may actually involve brain activity that mirrors what was seen and heard, so that as soon as physiological maturation makes it possible, the baby knows exactly what to do. He had done it many times before, in the brain. |
| Brain plasticity | AKA Neuroplasticity- the ability to generate new neurons & pathways (or connections) in the brain. Human traits that can be molded but maintain identity and durability. |
| Qualitative research | research that considers qualities instead of quantities. Description of particular conditions and participants' expressed ideas are often part of the qualitative studies |
| quantitative research | research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales |
| Longitudinal | a research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their dev is repeatedly assessed. It is useful in tracing dev over many yrs. This form has many drawbacks. Over time, participants may w/draw, move, or die. |
| Cross-sectional | a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics. It is the quickest and least expensive way to study dev over time. |
| Cross-sequential | a hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (cross-sectional) and then follow these groups over the yrs (longitudinal). it lets scientists disentangle the effects of age from effects of history. |
| Experiment | a research method in which the researcher tries to determine the cause and effect relationship b/w 2 variables by manipulating one (IV) and observing the changes of the other (DV) |
| Case study | an in-depth study of 1 person, usually requiring personal interviews to collect background information and various follow up discussions, test, questionnaires, etc. |
| naturalistic observation | observing one in their natural setting |
| dependent variable | in an experiment, the bariable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. In other words, the DV depends on the IV |
| Independent variable | in an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the DV |
| Correlation | a number that indicates the degree of relationship b/w 2 variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or won't) occur when the other variable does (or doesn't). A correlation indicates only that they are related. |
| Informed consent | participants must understand and agree to the research procedures, knowing what risks are involved. |
| Separation anxiety | an infants distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; most obvious b/w 9-14 months |
| temperament | inborn differences b/w 1 person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. It is measured by the persons typical responses to the environment. |
| attachment | according to aisnworth, "an affectional tie" that an infant forms with a caregiver, a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time. |
| behaviorism - Watson's behaviorism theory | a grand theory of human development that studies observable bx. It's also called learning theory bc it describes the laws and processes by which bx is learned. |
| Erikson's theory | he described 8 dev stages, each characterized by a dev crisis. although Erikson named 2 polarities at each crisis, he recognized a wide range of outcomes b/w those opposites.For most, dev at each stage leads to neither extreme but to something in b/w. |
| Erikson's first five stages are closely related to who's stages? What is similar and different b/w Freud and Erikson's theories? | Freud's. He believed, like Freud, that problems of adult life echo unresolved childhood conflicts. However, differences include 1. erikson's stages emphasize family and culture, not sexual urges and 2. Erikson also has stages for adulthood. |
| What are Erikson's stages of dev (1-3)? | 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1) > hope> appreciation of interdependence and relatedness in adulthood. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame (1-3)>will>appreciation of the life cycle from integration to disintegration. 3. initiative vs. gilt>purpose>humor, empathy, resilience |
| what are Erikson's stages of dev (4-5)? | 4. industry vs. inferiority (6-12)> Humility; acceptance of the course of one's life and unfulfilled hopes 5. identity vs. confusion (12-19)> fidelity> sense of complexity of life; merging of sensory, logical, and aesthetic perception. |
| What are Erikson's stages of dev (6-7)? | 6. Intimacy vs. isolation (20-25)> love> sense of complexity of relationships; value of tenderness and loving freely. 7. Generativity vs. stagnation (26-64)> care> caritas, caring for other, and agape, empathy and concern. |
| What are Erikson's stages of dev (8)? | 8. integrity vs. despair (65-death)> wisdom> existential identity; a sense of integrity strong enough to withstand physical disintegration. |
| Object permanence | infants learn that objects exist even when out of sight. |
| long term memory | the component of the information-processing system in which virtually limitless amounts of info can be sored indefinitely. |
| working memory | the component of the information-processing system in which current conscious mental activity occurs (formerly known as short-term memory). |
| implicit memory | unconscious or automatic memory that is usually stored vie habits, emotional responses, routine procedures, and various sensations. |
| explicit memory | memory that is easy to retrieve on demand (as in a specific test). Most explicit memory involves consciously learned words, data, and concepts. |
| Memory in old age | working memory decreases with age, long term memory remains pretty much the same throughout life. |
| Chomsky's theory of language acquisition | Noam Chomsky and his followers felt that language is too complex to be mastered merely through step by step conditioning. Although behaviorists focus on variations among children in vocabulary size, Chomsky focused on similarities in lang acquisition |
| Chomsky's theory of lang acquisition part 2 | Humans are born with a mental structure that prepares them to seek some elements of human lang. Chomsky labled this hypothesized mental structure the "Language Acquisition Device." |
| Language acquisition device | enables kids as their brains develop to derive the rules of grammar quickly and effectrively from the speech they hear every day regardless of their language. It is Chomsky's term for the hypothesized mantal structure that enable humans to learn language. |
| Conservation | The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) even when its appearance changes. |
| Theory of Mind (perspective taking) | a person's theory of what other people might be thinking. In order to have a theory of mind, children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are. That realization seldom occurs before age four. |
| Piaget's stages of development | has 4 stages of development sensorimotor intelligence, Preoperational intelligence, concrete operational thought, Formal operational thought |
| Vygotsky's theory | from powerpoint: development results from a person's interaction with their social and cultural surroundings. Culture is integral to development. Apprenticeship in thinking: how cognition is "taught" by the older and more skilled. |
| Kohlberg's stages of moral dev | he described three levels of moral reasoning and two stages at each level, with parallels to Piaget's stages of cognition. |
| Kohlberg's first level of moral development | Preconventional moral reasoning- similar to preoperational thought in that it is egocentric, with kids most interested in their personal pleasure or avoiding punishment. The goal is to get rewards and avoid punishments; this is a self-centered level. |
| First stage of level I in Kohlberg's stages of moral development | Might makes right (a punishment-andobedience orientation). The most important value is to maintain the appearance of obedience to authority, avoiding punishment while still advancing self-interest. Don't get caught! |
| Second stage of level I in Kohlberg's stages of moral development | look out for number 1 (an instrumental and relativist orientation). Each person tries to take care of his or her own needs. Be nice to other people so that they will be nice to you. |
| Level II of Kohlberg's stages of moral development | conventional moral reasoning- parallels concrete operational thought in that it relates to current, observable, practices: kids watch their parents, teachers, and friends, and try to follow. Emphasis on social rules: family, community, & cultural level. |
| stage three (in level II) of Kohlberg's stages of moral development | good girl and nice boy. Proper bx pleases other people. Social approval is more important than any specific rewards. |
| Stage four (in level II) of Kohlberg's stages of moral development | Law and order. Proper bx means being a dudtiful citizen and obeying the laws set down by society, even when no police are nearby. |
| Level III of Kohlberg's stages of moral development | postconventional moral reasoning- similar to formal operational thought bc it uses abstractions, goes beyond what's concretely observed, willing to question "what is" in order to decide "what should be." Emphasis on moral principles; centered on ideals. |
| Stage 5 (in level III) of Kohlberg's stages of moral development | Social contract. Social rules r obeyed when they benefit all/ r established by mutual agreement. If rules become destructive or 1 party doesn't live up to agreement, contract is no longer binding. Under those cicumstances, disobeying the law may b moral |
| Stage 6 (in level III) of Kohlberg's stages of moral development | Universal ethical principles, not individual situations or community practices, determine right or wrong. Ethical values (such as "life is sacred") are established by thought and prayer. may contradict egocentric or social & community values-levels 1 |
| Imaginary audience | the other people who, in an adolescent's egocentric belief, are watching and taking note of his or her appearance, ideas and bx. This belief makes many teens self-conscious. |
| Egocentrism | an aspect of adolescent thinking that leads young people (10-14) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others. |
| Personal fable | an adolescent's belief that his or her thoughts, feelings, or experiences are unique, and more wonderful or awful than anyone else's. |
| Deductive reasoning | (top down reasoning) is reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, through logical steps, to figure out (deduce) specifics. |
| Inductive reasoning | (bottom-up reasoning) reasoning from one or more specific experiences or facts to a general conclusion; may be less cognitively advanced than deduction. |
| Hypothetical thought | reasoning that includes propositions and possibilities that may not reflect reality. Reasoning about if-then propositions. |
| Identity formation (4 types) | moratorium, diffusion, achievement, confusion are the four different kinds. |
| Identity Achievement | when you've figured out your identity & you're happy with it |
| Identity confusion/role diffusion | when you don't know your identity or don't care to figure things out, lack of commitment to any goals or values, procrastinating & avoiding, ex. living on parent's couch while b/w jobs, not making an effort to figure out what you want to do w/ your life. |
| Identity Foreclosure | premature identity formation, accept society's roles & values w/o question, doing what's expected w/o considering what you want, an effort to end role confusion. ex. your parents want you to be a doctor, so you go to med school w/o exploring your options |
| Identity Moratorium | post-poining identity achievement in a social desirable way, exploring your options, ex. going to college & figuring things out. |
| Ageism | a prefudice whereby people are categorized and judged solely on the basis of their chronological age. It becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. |
| Secondary aging | the specific physical illnesses or conditions that become more common with aging but are cause by health habits, genes, and other influences that vary from person to person |
| Primary aging | the universal and irreversible physical changes that occur to all living creatures as they grow older. |
| Genetic clock theory | a purported mechanism in the DNA of cells that regulates the aging process by triggering hormonal changes and controlling cellular reproduction and repair. |
| Cellular aging | the cumulative effect of stress and toxins, causing first cellular damage and eventually the death of cells. |
| Free radicals | electrons break loose from their nuclei, damage surrounding cells. |
| The hayflick limit | the # of times a human cell is able to divide to two new cells. the limit for most human cells is about 50 divisions, this indicats the life span is limited by our genetic program. Even w/o infections, healthy cells stop replicating @ a certain point |
| What contributes to longevity | Diet, work, family & community, exercise & relaxation? or maybe exercise, moderate diet, and avoiding harmful drugs especially cigs and maybe calorie restriction. |
| Intelligence research | |
| Analytic intelligence | from the intelligence that involves such mental process as abstract planning strategy selection, focused attention, and information processing as well as verbal and logical skills. |
| Practical intelligence | the intellectual skills used in everyday problem solving (sometimes called tacit intelligence) |
| Creative intelligence | a form of intelligence that involves the capacity to be intellectually flexible and innovative |
| Intuition | not a mystical sixth sense, but a process that everyone is capable of. -instant, unconscious process, creativity. -big picture, insight oriented. - not sequential or linear. There are 4 parts |
| What are the four parts of intuition | 1. Innate capacity; related to general intelligence 2. physiology 3. process is silent and unconscious 4. genetic inheritance. |
| can intuition be taught? | yes, remember where's waldo? |
| Sensory motor intelligence | Piaget's term for the way infants think- by using their senses and motor skills - during the first period of cognitive development. |
| Preoperational intelligence | Piaget's term for cognitive development b/w the ages of about 2-6; it includes language and imagination (which involve symbolic thought), but logical, operational thinking is not yet possible. |
| Concrete operational thought | Piaget's term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions. |
| Formal operational thought | in Piaget's theory, the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, characterized by more systematic logical thinking and by the ability to understand and systematically manipulate abstract concepts. |
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