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LING 503
Intro to German Linguistics
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the Phonemic Principle? | One letter for one sound (one grapheme for one phoneme) <rot> = /ro:t/ |
| ONE letter for more than one sound: <b, d, g> | /b, d, g/, /p, t, k/ |
| ONE letter for more than one sound: <e> | /e/, /e:/, /ə/ |
| more than one letter for one sound: <p, t, k>, <b, d, g> | /p, t, k/ |
| more than one letter for one sound: <f>, <v> | /f/ <von, viel> <greifen, schaffen> |
| More than one letter for one sound: <w, v> | /v/ <wo, was, wann> |
| More than one letter for one sound: <s, ß> | /s/ |
| More than one letter for one sound: < sch, s> | /ʃ/ <Stein, Spiel>, <Schnee>, <Asche, waschen> |
| More than one letter for one sound: <pf, ts/tz/z> | /pf, ts/ |
| More than one letter for one sound: <ng> | /ŋ/ |
| More than one letter for one sound: <en> | /ņ/ |
| More than one letter for one sound: <bb, nn, ck> | /b:, n:, k:/ <Phonetik>, cf. Nw. <fonetikk> |
| More than one letter for one sound: <ai/ei, au, eu/äu> | /ai, au, oi/ |
| More than one letter for one sound: <x/chs> | /ks/ |
| More than one letter for one sound: <ch> | /x/ |
| More than one letter for one sound: <qu> | /kv/ |
| What is the importance of the Morphemic Principle? | shows relatedness in word forms |
| Morphemic principle: <Grab, Grabes> | /gra:p, gra:bəs/ cf. MHG grap/grabes /grab-/, /grab- ~ grap-/ |
| Morphemic principle: <a> ~ <ä> in related forms | fallen/fällt, laufen/läuft cf. MHG vallen/vellt |
| Lexical principles distinguish_____? | homonyms |
| difference in representation of a long vowel | leeren vs. lehren |
| difference in representation of a short vowel (adding a consonant) | dass/das (daß) Mann/man |
| difference in spelling of diphthong | Weise/Waise |
| difference in representation of a short vowel (umlaut) | rächen/rechen |
| When was the most recent Rechtschreibreform? | November 1994 in Vienna revision: August 2006 addendum: July 2011 |
| What were the goals of the Rechtschreibreform? | Make more systematic rules Simplify individual words |
| Representatives came from how many countries and what was the reform intended for? | three countries; intended for government institutions (schools, admin) and most individuals |
| Were there many changes and was the transition gradual or immediate? | not too many changes, accepted alternatives; gradual transition |
| What were the six changes made? | 1. Sound/letter assignment 2. Capitalization 3. One or two words? 4. Hyphenation 5. Punctuation 6. Word division |
| Sound/letter assignment: what was the rule for ss vs. ß ? | ß only after long vowels and diphthongs, otherwise ss Fluss, Fass, passt, but Maß, außen |
| Sound/letter assignment: what was the rule pertaining to the number of same letters in a row? | Three of same letter in a row now allowed Schifffahrt, Schritttempo, Seeelefant |
| Sound/letter assignment: how was the foreign spelling <ph, th> assimilated? | ph, th > f, t in some words Mikrofon, Fotokopie, Grafiker, Asfalt, Delfin but Phonetiker, Tron, Tunfisch |
| Sound/letter assignment: how was the foreign spelling <é, ée> assimilated? | -é, -ée > -ee Exposee, Dragee |
| Sound/letter assignment: how was the foreign spelling <ies> assimilated? | -ies > -ys Babys, Hobbys |
| Sound/letter assignment: how was the foreign spelling <tial, tiell> assimilated? | -tial, -tiell > -zial , -ziell Potenzial (Potenz), substanziell (Substanz) |
| What was the change for capitalization? | Forms of address: Sie/Ihr/Ihnen, Du/Ihr in letters OK; (Time phrases: heute Morgen, gestern Abend) Substantivized adjectives: das Beste, das Richtige, das Nächste, der/die/das Namentliche, des Weiteren; In set phrases: in Bezug auf, Rad fahren |
| What was the rule for one/two words in verb phrases? | Angst haben, Rad fahren, Gefahr laufen standhalten, stattfinden, teilnehmen (a few cases) "sowie von Anglizimen" |
| Examples of hyphenation change? | 8-Pfunder, Blumentopf-Erde, Kaffee-Ersatz |
| When is a comma allowed? | Commas between clauses (with conjunctions, relative clauses), with oppositions; comma w/ als, anstatt, außer, ohne, statt, um |
| When is a comma not allowed but okay to use for clarity? | before und, oder before infinitive groups |
| How are words supposed to be divided now? | By syllables wa-rum, hi-nauf, Pä-da-go-gik, Chi-rurg |
| What is the rule for <st>, <ck>? | s-t, ck- < -st, k-k Kis-te, Fens-ter, Zu-cker, tro-cken |
| What is syntax? | Structure of sentences; principles that underlie the combo of grammatical entities |
| in syntax, ____ units combine to form _____ units | smaller; larger (like morphology and phonology) |
| syntax is part of ______. | grammar |
| What is the difference between syntax and morphology? | syntax works with larger units than morphology and with more variation in their structure |
| What is a sentence? | an idea, a thought; largest independent grammatical unit |
| In syntactic structure, how does one tell what is more closely related to what? | immediate constituents (adjacent components) |
| What are the immediate constituents for a sentence? | phrases |
| What are the immediate constituents for a phrase? | phrases, words |
| What do syntactic tree diagrams represent? | constituent structure |
| Is it possible for constituents to be discontinuous? | yes: ist ... gekommen. |
| How does one determine immediate constituents? | substitution (of equivalents) transposition |
| How does one determine the head of phrase/main constituent? | deletion test |
| Can a sentence clause function as one element even if it has its own structure? | yes: relative clause, clause without a conjunction, wenn-clause |
| In dependency trees, how does one determine the valency of verbs? | 1. number of nouns dependent on them: subject, direct object, indirect object 2, number of clauses dependent on it: subordinate clause, infinitive clause |
| A subject/direct object/indirect object is either a _______ or a _______ ? | noun; pronoun |
| A verb is a ________? | predicator |
| Complements come with _________? | linking verbs |
| What are qualifiers? | adjective, quantifier, article |
| What are considered adjuncts? | everything else: prepositional phrases, adverbial phrases |
| What are the six thematic roles? | 1. agent 2. patient/theme 3. experiencer/beneficiary 4. goal 5. source 6. location |
| What is the agent's role? | deliberately performs the action |
| What does a patient/theme do? | undergoes the action |
| What does an experiencer/beneficiary do? | experiencer: receives emotional/sensory input beneficiary: the entity for whose benefit the action occurs |
| What is the goal? | where the action is directed towards |
| What is the source and location? | source: where the action originated location: where the action occurs |
| What is the purpose of sentence plans and how are they organized? | show order and grouping of constituents; use function labeling: S P O1 O2, Uuse opening and closing brackets |
| What is the goal of Generative Grammar? | to describe all sentences in the most general way; generates, enumerates sentences, which can be produced in a given language |
| What do transformational rules generate? | surface structure from deep structure |
| How does Generative Grammar organize the constituents? | restate phrases in terms of their constituents: NP —> (Det) (A) N (S) |
| What are the functions of the different sentence types? | declarative (SV): statement interrogative (VS): question imperative (V): command |
| Differences between complete and incomplete sentences? (Other than the obvious) | incomplete used when things are understood (elliptical) somehow missing elements are in deep structure? ex: student responses in class |
| Main vs. subordinate clause? | independent vs. dependent presence or absence of conjunction verb position |
| In finite clauses there is __________ between verb and subject | agreement |
| What is the structure of a non-finite clause? | no agreeement between subject and object zu-particle in infinitive clauses accusative + infinitive construction |
| What are the possible sentence structures? | S + P, S + P + O SV, SVO, SOV |
| objects are __________, ____________, ____________ ,or __________. | accusative; dative; genitive, prepositional |
| dative is usually _____________. | personal |
| verbs that require the genitive: | bedürfen beschuldigen sich erinnern sich erbarmen |
| How does one distinguish prepositional objects from adjuncts? | prepositional objects are more closely bound to the verb; some verbs require a particular preposition: sprechen über / besprechen |
| What are reflexive objects? | objects of the verb (dative or accusative) refer back to subject |
| How are subordinate clauses represented by objects or adjuncts? | replacement by es, da-compounds use of es, da-compounds in anticipation or as adjuncts |
| Examples of subordinate clauses as objects/adjuncts | Ich habe herausgefunden, dass sie nicht raucht. cf. Ich habe die Antwort herausgefunden. Als ich nach Hause kam, war sie schon da. cf. Gestern war sie schon da. |
| Syntactic vs. pragmatic word order? | former for different sentence, clause types; latter for different speech styles |
| What are the three types of syntactic ordering? | 1. declarative 2. interrogative (with or without interrogative) 3. imperative (with or without subject) |
| The verb is always in the _______ in the main clause | second |
| The verb is always in the ______ in a subordinate clause | final |
| The verb is always in the ______ in a subordinate clause without a conjunction | first |
| What is the German Satzklammer? | V1 ........ V2 (prefix, object, complement) |
| What is the order for multiple objects? | 1. dative noun object before accusative noun object 2. pronoun object before noun object, regardless of case 3. accusative pronoun object before dative |
| What is the order for multiple adjuncts? | time-----manner-----place BUT an adjunct closely tied to verb causes exceptions. |
| What are the characteristics of pragmatic ordering? | older information comes earlier, newer information later more important elements come later intonation or unusual position for emphasis afterthought may come outside pattern (spoken German) |
| What is semantics? | the study of meaning in language |
| In lexical semantics, word meaning is _________? | semantic units lexemes, not subordinated word-forms |
| lexemes do not exist in __________ but only in ___________. | isolation; sentences |
| Words refer to both _____________? | actions, objects, states in the real world and concepts that only exist in our minds |
| ____________ are separate lexemes that happen to sound alike | homonyms |
| ___________ are lexemes with the same meaning. | synonyms |
| What is the difference between denotation and connotation? | reference vs. usage |
| _________ refers to multiple meanings of the same word | polysemy |
| What refers to a meaning of a word being included in a meaning of another word? ex: Frau [Dame, Weib] | hyponymy |
| Do hyponyms always refer to the same thing? | no, difference between inclusion and compatibility ex: Mensch [Engländer/Pianist], Haustiere [Katze vs. Hund] |
| What are the two different types of opposites? | 1. antonyms (gradable): kurz/lang, alt/jung, schön/hässlich 2. complementaries (non-gradable): richtig/falsch |
| What is the semantic field theory and how is the vocabulary divided? | relation of lexeme to other lexemes of similar meaning; whole vocabulary broken into semantic fields |
| Who developed the semantic field theory? | Jost Trier |
| What does structuralism focus on? | not the use, but the underlying system of language |
| What type of relationship is used in the semantic field theory? | opposition/contrast |
| ____ system in semantics, ______ system in phonology, morphology | open; closed |
| What is Componential Analysis? | characters (components) of meaning +/- for various components |
| What are the six categories of loan words? | 1. foreign words 2. loan words(Lehnwort--assimilated) 3. loan translations (Lehnübersetzung) 4. loan formations (Lehnübertragung) 5. loan meaning (Lehnbede) 6. loan creation (Lehnschöpfung) |
| Examples of foreign words? | clever, Party, Altar, Friseur |
| Examples of loan words? | Kirche, Sketch/Sketsch, Frisör |
| Examples of loan translations? | brand neu (Engl. brand new) Himmelreich (Lat. regnum caelorum) |
| Examples of loan formations? | Halbinsel (Lat. paeninsula) Wolkenkratzer (Engl. skyscraper) |
| Examples of loan meaning? | feuern (Engl. to fire ), buchen (Engl. book [verb]) Gott (Lat. deus) Ritter (Lat. Miles) |
| Examples of loan creation? | Niethose (Engl. jeans) Klimaanlage (Engl. air conditioning) cf. Handy (cell phone) |
| Examples of borrowing in OHG? | Gott, Trinität, Auferstehung, Sünde, Kirche, Altar |
| What language from which a majority of the borrowed words derive in OHG? | Latin |
| What were the main regions of influence of Latin in German in OHG? | religion, culture, administration, academia |
| Examples of borrowing in MHG? | Ritter, Turnier, Tanz, Lanze, Palast |
| What language from which a majority of the borrowed words derive in MHG? | French (and Latin) |
| What were the main regions of influence of French in German in MHG? | courtly culture |
| What were the main regions of influence of Italian in German in NHG? | banking, music |
| Examples of banking terms borrowed from Italian? | Konto, Kredit, Giro, Valuta, Limit, Rabatt |
| Examples of musical terms borrowed from Italian? | Cello, Flöte, Klarinette Arie, Sonate, Fuge Bass, Tenor, Alt, Sopran Solo, Duo, Quartett, Quintett adagio, presto, allegro |
| What were the main regions of influence of French in German in NHG? | military, home, restaurant, society, family |
| Examples of military terms borrowed from French? | Armee, Corps, Division, Brigade Infanterie, Kavallerie, Artillerie Kapitän, Major, General, Admiral Bajonett, Karabiner, Bombe Spion, Soldat, Kamerad |
| Example of home-related terms borrowed from French? | Loge, Appartement, Etage Balkon, Galerie, Fassade, Terrasse, Möbel, Kommode, Sofa, Vitrine Tapete, Gardine |
| Examples of restaurant-related terms borrowed from French? | Service, Serviette, Tasse Ragout, Omelette, Sauce (Soße), Pommes Frites Gelee, Marmelade, Torte, Likör |
| Examples of society terms borrowed from French? | Billiard, Ballett, Maskerade, adieu (ade, tschüß) |
| Examples of family-related terms borrowed from French? | Papa, Mama, Onkel, Tante |
| What were the main regions of influence of English in German in NHG? | fashion, society, sports, economy, daily life |
| Examples of fashion terms borrowed from English? | Pulli, Shorts, Slip, blue jeans, Pyjama (Persian), Schal |
| Examples of society terms borrowed from English? | Club, Bar, Party, Couch Tango, Foxtrott, Swing, Jazz Beefsteak, Rumpsteak, Sandwich, Toast, Pudding, Cakes (Keks) Punsch, Whisky, Rum, Cocktail Camping, Picknick |
| Examples of sports terms borrowed from English? | Boxen, Hockey, Tennis Profi, Manager, Trainer |
| Examples of economic terms borrowed from English? | Film, Tank, Job, Boss, Service, Container, Marketing |
| Examples of daily-life terms borrowed from English? | Stewardess, Hobby, attraktiv, sexy, Band |
| Examples of words borrowed from Slavic? | Vampir, Grippe, Steppe, Wodka Sowjet, Bolschewist, Sputnik Polka |
| Examples of loan translations? | Adresse > Anschrift Moment > Augenblick Bibliothek >Bücherei Meublement >Zimmereinrichtung Entreebillet > Eintrittskarte Correspondezkarte > Postkarte Couvert > Briefumschlag |
| Examples of loan translations/formations in politics and thought? | progrès > Fortschritt moyen âge, Middle Ages>Mittelalter presence of mind >Geistesgegenwart freethinker > Freidenker Kosmopolit > Weltbürger speaker > Sprecher parliament > Bundestag |
| Examples of loan translations/formations in sports? | stop watch > Stoppuhr football > Fußball halftime > Halbzeit finish > Endspurt |
| Examples of loan translations/formations in everyday life? | brain wash > Gehirnwäsche pocket bock > Taschenbuch self-service > Selbstbedienung papier/paper > Papier, Paper |
| What is the history of form and meaning of words? | etymology |
| What is etymology concerned with? | first attestation; borrowing from another language |
| Germanic or Indo-European etymologies? | Haus vs. Vater *hūsa- vs. *pətér |
| What is the definition of pragmatics? | use of language in communication |
| Who are the participants? | speaker/listener; writer/reader |
| Pragmatics is used as opposed to_________? | structure (phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax) |
| What is reflected in structure in pragmatics? | aspects of use/communication |
| What is the smallest unit in pragmatics? | utterances |
| What topics are studied in pragmatics? | structure of utterances utterances in context speech act theory |
| how are utterances studied in linguistic context? | preceding utterances |
| how are utterances studied in situational context? | shared knowledge of the world |
| utterances are studied in relation to_________, _________, and _________? | philosophy; psychology; sociology |
| In pragmatic ordering, weighty elements come closer to the ____? | end, but beginning can be position of prominence as well |
| What does the breaking of rules in word order identify? | emphasis; variants don't mean exactly the same thing |
| What is the thematic structure in pragmatics? | topic vs. comment (Thema vs. Rhema) |
| topic is ___ info, comment is ___ info | old; new |
| What is new vs. what is given? | what is given is taken from previous utterances; sometimes only new info is given |
| What could point out the focus of the utterance? | intonational nucleus (usually last item) |
| Intonational unit is____________? | informational unit |
| What is cohesion? | binding together of sentences by features of structure/organization |
| Personal pronouns, possessive adjectives, demonstrative pronouns, etc are all examples of___________? | cross-references |
| _________ goes backwards | Anaphora. Wir haben schon mit IHM gesprochen. SEIN Auto steht vor der Tür |
| _________ goes forwards | Cataphora. SOVIEL weiß ich, man kann nicht alles haben. Er fing DAMIT an, die Regeln zu erklären. |
| _________ goes outside the text | Exophora. Das war keine gute Idee. |
| Hyponym substitution usually by ___________. | Subordinate ex: Das Erdbeben dauerte nur wenige Minuten. Solche Katastrophen können aber viele Menschenleben kosten. |
| _______ leaves out understood elements | Ellipsis ex: Person A: Ich kenne diesen Mann. Person B: Ich nicht |
| References to place, time, person | Deixis |
| “Verbal pointing” in Deixis? | hier, dort, dieser, jener, der; heute, gestern, jetzt, bald; ich, mich, mir, du/Sie, etc. |
| Elements of Deictic center? | speaker = first person time = time of speaking place = location of speaker |
| What is presupposition? | prior assumption, on which the utterance is based; must be shared by speaker and hearer for effective communication to take place. ex: “Have you stopped beating your wife?” |
| Implication is when _______________? | features of meaning are implied, but not stated |
| What is the cooperative principle? | speaker promotes communication |
| How is the cooperative principle divided? | into four maxims by Paul Grice: 1. quantity 2. quality 3. relation 4. manner |
| Quantity Maxim | be as informative as required, but not more than is required |
| Quality Maxim | don’t say what is false or for what you lack evidence |
| Relation Maxim | be relevant |
| Manner Maxim | avoid obscurity and ambiguity; be brief and orderly |
| What is flouting a maxim? | deliberate violation or exploitation of a maxim |
| Speech Act Theory | speech is activity (philosophy) |
| What are the different speech acts, according to Searle? | representative (stating, asserting) directive (questioning/commanding) commissive (promising, threatening) expressive (congratulating) declarative (baptizing) |
| What kinds of verbs whose action is carried out once spoken? | performative verbs |
| What is direct speech? | actually do speech act, rather than talk about it; speaker may or may not use performative verb |
| What is indirect speech? | speaker means something other than what is actually said; politeness or power differential |
| What are the components of conversation? | acts moves exchanges |
| Acts = | move |
| Moves = | exchange |
| Exchanges = | transaction |
| Adjacency pair is___________________. | basic component of conversation |
| _____________ is basic organizational principle | turn-taking |
| Repairing sentences for: | correcting false info; maybe self-initiated or initiated by speech partner |
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