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Psych 120 Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the principles of behaviorism? | Theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors. Discounts importance of mental activity |
| Classical Conditioning | Association between two stimuli |
| Unconditioned Response | Reflex: Automatic, without prior learning |
| Unconditioned stimulus (US) | Reflex: Automatic, without prior learning |
| Learning: Association, after pairing of stimuli | Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR) |
| Generalization | Stimulus similar to CS elicits response similar to CR |
| Discrimination | Process of learning to respond only to some stimuli |
| Operant Conditioning | Association between behavior and consequence. explains voluntary behaviors |
| Thorndike’s Law of Effect | Positive outcomes strengthen behavior Negative outcomes weaken behavior |
| Positive Reinforcement | Presentation (adding) of something pleasant |
| Negative Reinforcement | Removal (taking away) of something unpleasant |
| Primary Reinforcer | Innately satisfying |
| Secondary Reinforcer | Acquires positive value through experience |
| Continuous Reinforcement | Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs |
| Partial Reinforcement | Reinforcer follows behavior only a portion of the time |
| Partial Reinforcement Schedules | Ratio (number of behaviors) vs. Interval (time elapsed) |
| Fixed (predictable) vs. Variable (unpredictable) | Partial Reinforcement Schedules |
| Fixed Ratio | based on set number of behaviors |
| Variable Ratio | based on average number of behaviors (unpredictable) |
| Fixed Interval | Rewarding behavior after fixed amount of time passes |
| Variable Interval | Rewarding after variable amount of time passes |
| Punishment | decreases likelihood of behavior |
| Positive Punishment | Presentation (adding) of something unpleasant |
| Negative Punishment | Removal (taking away) of something pleasant |
| Motor Reproduction | being able to have the skills to copy something that someone does |
| Mindset | Describes the way our beliefs about ability dictate our goals |
| Fixed Mindset | Belief that qualities cannot change |
| Growth Mindset | Belief that qualities can change/improve through effort |
| Operant Conditioning | Association between behavior and consequence. explains voluntary behaviors |
| Thorndike’s Law of Effect | Positive outcomes strengthen behavior Negative outcomes weaken behavior |
| Positive Reinforcement | Presentation (adding) of something pleasant |
| Negative Reinforcement | Removal (taking away) of something unpleasant |
| Primary Reinforcer | Innately satisfying |
| Secondary Reinforcer | Acquires positive value through experience |
| Continuous Reinforcement | Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs |
| Partial Reinforcement | Reinforcer follows behavior only a portion of the time |
| Partial Reinforcement Schedules | Ratio (number of behaviors) vs. Interval (time elapsed) |
| Fixed (predictable) vs. Variable (unpredictable) | Partial Reinforcement Schedules |
| Memory | Retention of information or experience over time |
| Process by which information enters memory storage | automatically with effort |
| Attention | To begin memory encoding, must pay attention to information |
| Selective attention | Focusing on specific aspects. Limitation of brain’s resources |
| Divided attention | Attending to several things simultaneously. watching tv and reading |
| Sustained attention | Attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. paying attention to notes while studying for an exam |
| Levels of processing | Continuum from shallow to deep Deeper processing, better memory Deep, elaborate processing is powerful |
| Dual-code hypothesis | Memory for pictures better than memory for words Pictures stored as both image codes and verbal codes |
| What is Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s theory of memory? | memory storage involves three separate systems 1. sensory memory 2. short term memory 3. long term memory |
| Memory processes | encoding, storage, retrieval |
| memory encoding | Process by which information enters memory storage. with effort or automatically |
| Levels of processing | Continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory. |
| Elaboration | Number of different connections made. Evident in physical activity of brain |
| Imagery | entails visualizing material that we want to remember in ways that create a lasting portrayal. Powerful encoding tool. Verbal code. Image code. Dual-code hypothesis |
| sensory memory | hold memory for an instant. a second or so |
| short term memory | time frame up to 30 seconds |
| long term memory | time frames up to a lifetime |
| Working memory | allows us to temporarily hold information while we perform cognitive tasks. Alternative approach to explaining short-term memory. Three-part system to hold information temporarily |
| Phonological loop | briefly stores speech based information |
| Visuo-spatial working memory | stores visual and spatial information |
| Central executive | integrates information. monitors which information deserves to be remembered and which we should ignore |
| Explicit memory | Conscious recollection of information that can be verbally communicated. includes episodic memory and semantic memory |
| Episodic memory | the memory of the where, when, and what aspects of life. Autobiographical information |
| Semantic memory | Knowledge about the world |
| Implicit Memory | Nonconscious recollection of skills and sensory perceptions. three aspects: procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming. |
| procedural memory | Memory for skills |
| classical conditioning | Memory for associations between stimuli |
| priming | Activation of information already in storage |
| What is a script? | Schema for an event. often have information about physical features, people, and typical occurrences. |
| What is parallel distributed processing (PDP)? | Memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory |
| Which brain regions are associated with the different memory types? | frontal lobe, amygdala, temporal lobes, hippocampus, cerebellum |
| structures of the brain that have to do with explicit memory | temporal lobes, frontal lobes, amygdala, and hippocampus |
| structures of the brain that have to do with implicit memory | cerebellum, temporal lobes, and hippocampus |
| What is the serial position effect? | Tendency to recall items at beginning and end of lists |
| Primary effect | Better recall for items at beginning of list |
| Recency effect | Better recall for items at end of list |
| Recall | Memory task to retrieve previously learned information. (essay question) |
| Recognition | Memory task to identify, or recognize, learned items (multiple choice) |
| Retrieval failure | Forgotten information |
| Proactive interference | Material learned earlier disrupts retrieval of material learned later (calling new friend, an old friends name) |
| Retroactive interference | Material learned later disrupts retrieval of material learned earlier |
| concepts | Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics. The structure of concepts can be explained by the prototype model |
| the prototype model | When evaluating whether a given item reflects a certain concept, people compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category. They look for a “family resemblance” with the item’s properties |
| Problem solving | Finding appropriate way to attain goal which is not readily available |
| The problem-solving process | 1. find and frame problems 2. develop good problem solving strategies 3. evaluate solutions 4. Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time |
| Develop good problem solving strategies | Subgoaling, algorithms, heuristics |
| reasoning | Mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions |
| decision making | Evaluating alternatives and choosing among them |
| inductive reasoning | Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations |
| deductive reasoning | Reasoning from a general case that we know to be true to a specific instance |
| Decision making | Evaluating alternatives and choosing among them |
| Confirmation bias | The tendency to search for and use information that supports ideas rather than refutes them |
| Hindsight bias | The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that outcome was accurately predicted |
| Availability heuristic | Prediction about possibility of event based on recalling or imagining similar events |
| Base rate fallacy | Tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information |
| Representativeness heuristic | Tendency to make judgments about group membership based on match to group stereotype |
| Intelligence | An all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, solve problems, and learn from experience |
| Measuring Intelligence | Criteria for a good intelligence test |
| Criteria for a good intelligence test | Validity, Reliability, Standardization |
| validity | Extent to which test measures what it is intended to measure |
| Reliability | Extent to which test yields consistent, reproducible measure of performance |
| What IQ scores represent | Mental age, developed by Binet - Individual’s level of mental development relative to that of others. intelligence quotient, developed by Stern |
| IQ= | MA/CA) x 100, where: • MA - Mental age • CA - Chronological age |
| Giftedness | High intelligence and/or superior talent in a particular area |
| Sternberg’s triarchic theory | Intelligence comes in three forms: Analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence |
| Analytical intelligence | The ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast |
| Creative intelligence | The ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine |
| Practical intelligence | The ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice |
| What is resilience? | Person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times Despite encountering adversity, a person shows signs of positive functioning |
| What are the stages of prenatal physical development and what advances occur during each phase? | Germinal period (weeks 1 & 2) Embryonic period (weeks 3 through 8) Fetal period (months 2 through 9) |
| Germinal period (weeks 1 & 2) | Cell divisions, attaches to uterine wall |
| Embryonic period (weeks 3 through 8) | Intensified cell differentiation, development of support systems, appearance of organs |
| Fetal period (months 2 through 9) | Development includes movement, organ functioning, weight gain |
| What do we know about the development of the adolescent brain? | changes in amygdala: changes in emotion, changes in prefrontal cortex: which concerns reasoning and decision making |
| Piaget’s cognitive development | human beings use schemas to make sense of their experience |
| Assimilation | Occurs when individuals incorporate new information into existing knowledge |
| Accommodation | Occurs when individuals adjust their schemas to new information |
| Sensorimotor stage | Lasts from birth to about 2 years of age |
| Sensorimotor stage | Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experience and development of object permanence |
| object permanence | Crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched |
| Preoperational stage | Lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years of age law of conservation |
| Preoperational stage | Beginning of limited symbolic thinking (represent world with drawings and words and images) Inability to perform operations, or reversible mental representations Egocentric and intuitive thinking |
| law of conservation | refers to the ability to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size. |
| Concrete operation stage | Lasts from 7 to 11 years of age |
| Concrete operation stage | Involves using operations, involves replacing intuitive reasoning |
| Formal operational stage | Last from 11 to 15 years of age |
| Formal operational stage | Continues through the adult years Formal operational stag idealistic Hypothetical-deductive reasoning |
| idealistic | Involves comparing how things are to how they might be |
| Hypothetical-deductive reasoning | Developing hypotheses about ways to solve a problem |
| What are the different theories of aging? | Free-radical theory Cellular-clock theory Hormonal stress theory |
| What are the cognitive processes of middle adulthood? | 1. crystilized intelligente 2. fluid inellegence |
| Crystallized intelligence | Individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills |
| Fluid intelligence | ability to reason abstractly |
| What were Harry Harlow’s findings in his studies about attachment amongst baby monkeys? | "Contact comfort" even if the warm cuddly mom didn't provide food she was still the source of comfort |
| Cellular-clock theory | View that cells can divide a maximum of about 100 times. As we age, our cells become less capable of dividing |
| Free-radical theory | People age because unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals are produced inside their cells. Damage done by free radicals may lead to a range of disorders |
| Hormonal stress theory | Aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease |
| what are the different types of parenting styles and how do they affect the children? | Authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful, permissive |
| authoritarian | A restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parents directions |
| authoritative | a parenting stile tat encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior |
| neglectful | a parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life |
| permissive | a parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior |
| pre conventional | Based on consequences of a behavior and on punishments or rewards from external world |
| conventional | Abiding by parental or societal standards |
| Postconventional level | Recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops an increasingly personal moral code |
| instinct | Innate biological pattern of behavior assumed to be universal throughout species. Set in motion by a sign stimulus |
| Drive | Aroused state that occurs due to physiological need |
| Need | Deprivation that energizes drive to reduce or eliminate that deprivation |
| Homeostasis | Body’s tendency to maintain equilibrium |
| Goal of drive reduction | homeostasis |
| Optimum arousal theory | Yerkes-Dodson law |
| Yerkes-Dodson law | Performance best under conditions of moderate arousal, rather than low or high arousal |
| Low arousal | One may be too lethargic to perform tasks well |
| High arousal | One may not be able to concentrate |
| Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human needs | must be satisfied in the following sequence: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, self actualization |
| Self-determination theory | Competence, Relatedness, Autonomy. exist in every person |
| competence | Met when we feel we are able to bring about desired outcomes, involves self-efficacy and mastery |
| Relatedness | Need to engage in warm relation with others |
| Autonomy | Sense that we are in control of own life. being independent and self reliant |
| Intrinsic | based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness) as well as curiosity, challenge, and fun |
| Extrinsic motivation | motivation that involves external incentives such as rewards and punishmetns |
| Self-regulation | Process by which an organism effortfully controls behavior in order to pursue important objectives. getting feedback |
| Cholecystokinin | Helps start the digestion of food |
| Key chemical substances play a role in hunger, eating, and satiety | glucose, insulin, leptin |
| Lateral hypothalamus | Involved in stimulating eating |
| Ventromedial hypothalamus | Reduces hunger and restricts eating |
| Brain areas involved in sex | Hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, limbic system |
| Excitement phase | Begins process of erotic responsiveness |
| Plateau phase | Continuation and heightening of arousal begun in the excitement phase |
| Orgasm | Involves an explosive discharge or neuromuscular tension and an intensely pleasurable feeling |
| Resolution phase | Return of blood vessels to normal state |
| different theories of emotion | James-Lange theory Cannon-Bard Theory Two-factor theory Facial feedback hypothesis |
| James-Lange theory | Emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment |
| Cannon-Bard theory | Proposes that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously |
| two factor theory | physiological arousal and cognitive labeling |
| facial feedback hypothesis | the idea that facial expression can influence emotions as well as reflect them |
| Display rules | Sociocultural standards determining when, where, how emotions should be expressed |
| Gender influences on emotion | Men and women more alike in ways of experiencing emotion than stereotype suggests |
| Hedonic treadmill | Aspect of life that enhances one’s positive feelings is likely to do so for only a short time |
Created by:
liviwasserman