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NURS 210A Final
Vanderbilt Final Exam, Dr. Cobb Ch 12-14 Final Exam Material
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the central nervous system composed of? | brain and spinal cord |
| Where does all information coming in and going out of the brain occur? | Brain stem |
| What is cephalization? | enhancement of brain increase number of neurons in brain |
| In what species is cephalization most advanced? | human brain |
| Why do we have brain ventricles? | the lumen in the neural canal expands |
| What are brain ventricles? | hollow spaces in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid (same stuff that surrounds the brain and spinal cord) |
| How many brain ventricles do we have? What are they? | 4 ventricles, 2 paired c-shape lateral ventricles of telencephalon, third ventricle found in diencephalon and fourth ventricle found in hindbrain dorsal to pons |
| What is the superior part of the brain that makes up 83% of its mass? | Cerebrum |
| The cerebrum has ridges called ______- and shallow grooves called ____. Also has deep grooves which are called ________ | gyri and sulci and fissures |
| What separates the two hemispheres of the brain? | longitudinal fissure |
| What are the 3 basic regions of the cerebrum? | outer cortex (grey matter), inner cortex (white matter) and basal nuclei |
| In the brain, where is the grey matter located? White? | g- outer cortex,w- inner cortex |
| The deep sulci divide the hemispheres of the brain into how many lobes? What are these lobes? | 5- frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, insula |
| The central sulcus separates which lobes? | frontal and parietal |
| The parieto-occipital sulcus separates which lobes? | parietal and occipital |
| The lateral sulcus separates which lobes? | parietal and temporal |
| What is the superficial gray matter of the brain which accounts for 40% of it’s mass? | Cortex |
| The cortex is largely made up of neuron _______ and enables these types of activities | soma enables sensation, communication, memory, understanding, and voluntary movements |
| Each hemisphere of the brain acts _______ meaning that it controls the opposite side of the body. | Contralaterally |
| T/F- The hemispheres are not equal in function | true |
| T/F- no functional area of the cortex acts alone; conscious behavior involves the entire cortex | true |
| What are the 3 cortical function areas? What does each do? | Motor areas (control voluntary movement) Sensory areas (conscious awareness of sensation) Association areas (integrate information) |
| What do the motor areas of the cortex do? | control voluntary movement |
| What do the sensory areas of the cortex do? | provide conscious awareness of sensation |
| What do the association areas of the cortex do? | integrate information |
| What is the general function of the frontal area of the cerebral cortex? | voluntary motor functions and planning, mood, and smell |
| What is the general function of the parietal area of the cerebral cortex? | sensory reception and integration of sensory information |
| What is the general function of the occipital area of the cerebral cortex? | visual reception/processing |
| What is the general function of the temporal area of the cerebral cortex? | hearing, smell, learning, memory, emotional behaviors |
| Where is the primary motor cortex located? What does it do? | located in precentral gyrus, this allows for conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements |
| What is a motor homunculus? | an artistic drawing which depicts the relative amounts of cortical tissue devoted to each motor function |
| This motor control area controls learned repetitive motor skills like typing or playing an instrument | premotor cortex |
| This motor control area controls muscles involved in speech | Broca’s area |
| This motor control area is involved in controlling the muscles involved in eye movement | frontal eye field |
| Located in the postcentral gyrus, this sensory area receives information from the skin and skeletal muscles and exhibits spatial discrimination | primary somatosensory cortex |
| What are the main sensory areas of the brain called? | primary somatosensory cortex, somatosensory association cortex, visual/auditory areas, Olfactory.gustatory/ vestibular cortices |
| What is a somatosensory homunculus? | an artistic drawing of the relative amounts of cortical tissue devoted to each sensory function |
| T/F-the two hemispheres of the brain sit in isolation and do NOT communicate | False |
| Lateralization of cortical function means that each hemisphere has/does not have abilities not shared with its partner | has |
| What is meant by “cerebral dominance”? | this designates which hemisphere is dominant for language |
| Which hemisphere is primarily associated with language, math, and logic? | Left |
| Which hemisphere is primarily associated with visual-spatial skills, emotion, and artistic skills? | Right |
| This part of the cerebrum consists of deep myelinated fibers and their tracts. It is responsible for communication between cerebral cortex and lower CNS centers, and between areas of cerebral cortes | White matter (inner) |
| These three fibers create connections among the two hemispheres by… | commissural fibers (connect corresponding gray areas) Association fibers (connect different parts of same hemisphere) Projection fibers (enter hemispheres from lower brain/cord centers) |
| Do lesions on basal nuclei block the generation of voluntary motor output? | no, but do significantly affect it |
| What are basal nuclei (ganglia)? | masses of gray matter (neural cell bodies) found deep within the cortical white matter |
| What is the corpus striatum? What are its three parts? | part of the basal nuclei, the big @ sign deep within the white matter, composed of Caudate nucleus, Lentiform nucleus (putamen and globus pallidus) and fibers of interal capsule which run between caudate and lentiform |
| What are the functions of the basal nuclei? | coordinate control of muscular activity, regulate attention and cognition, regulate intensity of slow movements, inhibit antagonistic/unnecessary movement |
| What is the diencephalon? What structures are included? What is enclosed by it? | central core of the forebrain consists of 3 paired structures (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus) and encloses third ventricle |
| Where do afferent impulses from all senses converge and synapse? Impulses of a similar function are sorted out, edited, and relayed as a group from here. | Thalamus |
| All inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex pass through what? | Thalamus |
| What is the function of the thalamus? | mediating sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory |
| Where is the hypothalamus located? What does it form? | below the thalamus, caps brainstem and forms inferolateral walls of 3rd ventricle |
| What is the infundibulum? | stalk of the hypothalamus that connects to the pituitary gland |
| What is the main visceral control center of the body? | hypothalamus |
| What are the functions of the hypothalamus? | regulation of bp, rate/force of heartbeat, digestive tract motility, rate/depth of breathing, etc. perception of fear/pleasure/rage, thermoregulation, hunger/satiety, sleep/sleep cycle |
| The hypothalamus functions as a ___________ because it releases hormones to control secretion of hormones by pituitary gland, produces ADH and oxytocin | endocrine gland |
| What is the location of the epithalamus? What does it form? | most dorsal portion of diencephalon, forms root of 3rd ventricle |
| This gland of the epithalamus extends from the posterior border and secretes melatonin (sleep regulation and mood) | Pineal gland |
| This structure of the epithalamus secretes cerebral spinal fluid | choroid plexus |
| The _______ consists of 3 regions, (midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata) | brain stem |
| What makes the brain stem different from the spinal cord? What does it function to do? | contains embedded nuclei, controls automatic behaviors for survival |
| This structure provides a pathway for tracts between higher and lower brain centers, it is associated with 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves | Brain stem |
| This portion of the brain stem is located between the diencephalon and the pons | midbrain |
| What are the functions of the midbrain? | coordination of head/eye movement, startle reflexes, integration with basal nuclei, relay stations for descending motor pathway |
| This portion of the brain stem is a bulging region between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata, it forms part of the anterior wall of the fourth ventricle | Pons |
| What do the fibers of the pons (bridge) do | connect higher brain centers with spinal cord, relay impulses between motor cortex and cerebellum |
| What functions are processed through the pons? | sleep, hearing, balance, taste, facial expression/sensation, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, posture |
| Where in the brain stem do cranial nerves V(trigeminal), VI(abducens), and VII (facal) originate? | pons |
| What is the most inferior part of the brain stem that helps to form the ventral wall of the fourth ventricle? | medulla oblongata |
| The medulla oblongata has ______ which are two longitudinal ridges formed by corticospinal tracts (motor fibers) | pyramids |
| Decussation of the pyramids means the _________ points of the corticospinal tracts | crossover |
| Where in the brain stem do cranial nerves X (vagas) XI (Accessory nerve) and XII (hypoglossal) originate? | medulla oblongata |
| What causes contralateral brain control? | decussation of the pyramids in the medulla oblongata |
| This brain region is located dorsal to the pons and medulla and protrudes under the occipital lobes of the cerebrum, it makes up 11% of the brain’s mass | Cerebellum |
| What is the function of the cerebellum? Do these activities occur (sub)consciously? | provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction, occurs subconsciously |
| The cerebellum consists of _____ bilaterally symmetrical hemispheres connected medially by the ______. | two connected by vermis |
| Each hemisphere of the cerebellum has ____ lobes called ______________ | 3, anterior, posterior, flocculondular lobe |
| How is the gray and white matter (neural arrangement) in the cerebellum? | gray matter cortex and internal white matter w/scattered nuclei (just like cerebrum) |
| What are arbor vitae? | distinctive treelike patterns of the cerebellum white matter |
| What connects the cerebellum to the midbrain, pons, and medulla? | midbrain-superior peduncle, pons-midde peduncle, medulla-inferior peduncle |
| The cerebrum is also known as the | cerebral cortex |
| How do the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex function together? | cerebellum receives impulses voluntary muscle move. proprioceptors/visual signals inform cerebellum body condition cerebellar cortex calculates best movement, sends blueprint to cerebral motor cortex sends appropriate info out via motor efferent pathways |
| What is a functional brain system? How many are there in the central nervous system? What are they called? | networks of neurons that work together and span wide areas of the brain, 2 systems are Limbic system and reticular formation |
| The limbic functional brain system of the CNS is composed of? | deep structures located in cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon |
| What are the 3 parts of the limbic system that are important in emotion? What does each do? | Amygdala (anger, danger, fear (fight/flight)) Cingulate gyrus (expressing emotions via gestures, resolves mental conflict) Hippocampus (memory) |
| The limbic system interacts with ____________lobes to form the interface between emotional brain and cognitive brain | prefrontal |
| What is the composition of the reticular formation functional brain system? | three broad columns of gray matter that form the core of the brain stem, connections to hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum and spinal cord |
| What is the function of the reticular activating system? | filters sensory input to prevent sensory overload, keeps cerebral cortex active and alert, regulates sleep/coma |
| Injury to what functional brain system can lead to irreversible coma? | reticular formation |
| What type of brain function involves continuous electrical activity? | normal |
| What device records brain waves? | electroencephalogram (EEG) |
| What are brain waves? | pattern os neuronal electrical activity recorded by the EEG |
| What are the 4 main classes of brain waves based on frequency (Hz) of troughs and peaks? | Alpha, Beta, Theta, Delta |
| What brain waves are regular and rhythmic, low-amplitude, slow, indicate idling brain, also called adult idling? | Alpha waves |
| What brain waves are rhythmic, more irregular occurring during awake and mentally alert state of adults? | Beta waves |
| What waves are more irregular, common in children but not in adults? | Theta |
| What brain waves have high amplitude seen in deep sleep when reticular activating system is damped? | Delta waves |
| T/F- Brain waves change with age, sensory stimuli, brain disease, and chemical state of body | True |
| What device can be used to diagnose and localize brain lesions, tumors, infarcts, infections, abscesses, and epileptic lesions | EEG’s |
| What type of EEG is a clinical sign of death? | flat (no electrical activity) |
| What is consciousness? | perception of sensation, voluntary initiation and control of movement, thinking, simultaneous activity of large areas of cerebral cortex, superimposed on other types of neural activity, reflects interconnectedness of all functional brain regions |
| Clinical consciousness id defined on a _______-- that grades levels of behavior. What are the 4 levels? | continuum- alertness, drowsiness, stupor, coma |
| What are the 2 major types of sleep? | Non-Rapid eye movement (NREM) and Rapid Eye movement (REM) |
| How many stages of NREM sleep do you pass through in the first 30-45 minutes of sleep? What are they? | 4; relaxation, irregular EEG, sleep deepens, delta waves |
| When does REM sleep occur? | after the 4th NREM stage |
| What is the restorative sleep stage? | 3rd and 4th levels of NREM |
| What does REM sleep deprivation cause? | moodiness and depression |
| During REM, what happens with your brain? | superfluous information is purged |
| What happens to sleep requirements with age? | Declines |
| What is Memory? | storage and retrieval of information |
| What are the 2 stages of memory? How long does each last? What are the limits on each? | Short term lasts seconds to hours, is limited to 7 or 8 chunks of information, Long term memory has limitless capacity |
| What are 4 factors that can effect the transfer of memory from short term to long term? | Emotional state (need to be alert and aroused) Rehearsal, Association, Automatic memory (subconscious info stored in LTM) |
| What part of the brain is largely responsible for memory? | Hippocampus |
| How do we form memory? | synthesis of synaptic proteins is upregulated, number and size of presynaptic terminals increase, more neurotransmitter is released by presynaptic neurons |
| What protects the Central nervous system? | brain covered by cranium, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid, blood-brain barrier keeps dangerous substances from reaching the brain, endothelial cells filter the blood brain connections |
| What are meninges? Functions | 3 connective tissue membranes outside of the CNS including dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater, cover and protect CNS, contain Cerebrospinal fluid, form partitions within the skull |
| What is the dura mater composed of? Functions? | leathery strong meninge composed of 2 fibrous connective tissue layers, where the 2 layers separate they form dural sinuses, outermost meninx |
| What is the arachnoid mater composed of? Location? Function? | middle meninx forms loose brain covering, contains Cerebrospinal fluid and large blood vessels, |
| What is the pia mater composed of? Location? | delicate connective tissue that clings to the brain, deepest meninx |
| What is cerebrospinal fluid? | water solution similar to blood plasma with no protein and different ion concentration, gives brain buoyancy to prevent it from being crushed by own weight, protects from blows and other trauma, nourishes brain and carries chemical signals throughout CNS |
| What is the choroid plexus? | clusters of capillaries that form tissue fluid filters that hang from the roof of each ventricle, ion pumps allow them to alter ion concentrations of Cerebrospinal fluid |
| What is the main function of the choroid plexus? | cleanse cerebrospinal fluid by removing wastes |
| What is the blood brain barrier? | protective mechanism that helps maintain a stable environment for the brain, a selective barrier that allows nutrients to pass through |
| Where is the blood-brain barrier not found? When is it not effective? | ineffective against substances that can diffuse through plasma membrane, absent in vomiting center and hypothalamus to allow for monitoring of chemical composition of blood |
| What increases the ability of chemicals to pass through blood-brain barrier? | stress |
| Traumatic brain injuries are usually ___________ as a result of the brain hitting inside of cranium, these involve temporary alteration of brain function. | concussive events |
| T/F- multiple concussions do not cause cumulative brain damage | False, |
| Brain swelling known as ______- can sometimes accompany injuries and can/cannot be fatal | edema can be fatal |
| This type of brain dysfunction is caused when blood circulation to the brain is blocked and brain tissue dies. Often caused by blockage of cerebral artery via blood clot or atherosclerosis | cerebrovascular accident (CVA/stroke) |
| That is a transient ischemic attack? | temporary episodes of reversible cerebral ischemia |
| What is a drug treatment for a stroke that works if it is caused by a blood clot? | Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA) |
| What is the name of a progressive degenerative disease of the brain that results in dementia? | Alzheimer’s disease |
| What is the name of a disease which causes degeneration of the dopamine-releasing neurons of the basal nuclei | Parkinson’s |
| What is the name of a disease which is a fatal hereditary disorder caused by a mutation of the protein huntingtin that leads to degeneration of the basal nuclei? | Huntington’s |
| This is Central Nervous system tissue enclosed within the vertebral column from the foramen magnum to L1 | Spinal Cord |
| The spinal cord functions to provide two-way communication to and from the _______ | brain |
| What protects the spinal cord? | bone, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid |
| What is the epidural space of the spinal cord? | space between the vertebrae and the dural sheath (dura mater) that is filled with fat and a network of veins |
| What are spinal meminges? | pia mater, arachnoid, and dura mater that surround the spinal cord for protection |
| What is the terminal portion of the spinal cord called? | conus medullaris |
| What is the collection of nerve roots at the inferior end of the vertebral canal called? | cauda equine |
| What is the fibrous extension of the pia mater that anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx called? | Filum terminale |
| What are the shelves of pia mater that attach the spinal cord to the vertebrae called? | Denticulate ligaments |
| How many spinal nerves are there? How do they attach to the spinal cord? | 31 pairs of spinal nerves attach to the spinal cord by paired roots |
| What are the cervical and lumbar enlargements of the spinal cord? | sites where nerves serving the upper and lower limbs emerge from the spinal cord |
| In the spinal cord, how is the gray and white matter organized? | gray matter is inside of the white matter, opposite of the brain |
| Where are the sensory roots and ganglia located in the gray matter of the spinal cord? | dorsal half |
| Where are the motor roots located in the gray matter of the spinal cord? | ventral half |
| _______ and ___________- roots fuse laterally to form spinal nerves | dorsal and ventral roots |
| What are the 4 zones within the gray matter of the spinal cord? | somatic sensory, visceral sensory, visceral motor, somatic motor |
| Does visceral mean internal or external? Somatic? | Visceral=internal, Somatic=external |
| In what 3 ways do the fibers of the white matter of the spinal cord run? | ascending, descending, and transverse |
| What is the grey matter of the spinal cord made up of? The white? | grey=cell bodies of neurons, White=axons |
| What are the 3 funiculi (columns) that the white matter of the spinal cord is organized into? | posterior, lateral, anterior |
| What is the function and structure of the ascending spinal cord pathways? | axons branch as they enter the spinal cord and medulla, some take part in spinal cord reflexes while others continue to ascend to the thalamus and send input to the sensory neurons of the brain |
| The nonspecific and specific ascending pathways send impulses to the ______ ________ and are responsible for discriminative touch and conscious proprioception. | sensory cortex |
| The spinocerebellar tracts send impulses to the ________-- and do not contribute directly to sensory perception | cerebellum |
| T/F- the anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts for muscle and tendon stretch decussate and 2nd order fibers terminate at the level of the cerebellum. | false, they do not decussate |
| What are descending spinal cord tracts? What are the 2 groups | output tracts that deliver efferent impulses from the brain to the spinal cord, direct (pyramidal) and indirect pathways (all others) |
| Motor pathways of the descending spinal cord tracts involve ______neurons which are ______________ | 2, upper and lower |
| Where do the direct pathways of the spinal cord originate? What do they do and how? | originate with pyramidal neurons (upper motor neurons, located in brain), send impulses through the corticospinal tracts to activate skeletal muscles, regulate the fast and skilled movements |
| What is included in the indirect pathway of the central nervous system? | brain stem, motor nuclei, all motor pathways not part of the pyramidal system (not the cereberum) |
| What functions does the indirect pathway control? | axial muscles for balance and posture, muscle for coarse movements of proximal parts of limbs, head, neck, and eye, movement |
| T/F- Spinal cord injuries always result in complete loss of body function? | False |
| What is paralysis? | injury to the spinal cord resulting in loss of motor function |
| What type of paralysis is caused by severe damage to the ventral root or anterior horn cells, damage to lower motor neurons prevents impulses from reaching muscles, there is no voluntary or involuntary control of muscles | flaccid paralysis |
| What type of paralysis is caused by damage to only the upper motor neurons of the primary motor cortex, spinal neurons remain intact and muscles are stimulated irregularly, there is no voluntary control of muscles | spastic paralysis |
| This spinal cord inur is the cross sectioning of the spinal cord at any level resulting in total loss of motor and sensory in regions below the cut | transection |
| Where does the transection occur to cause paraplegia | between T1 and L1 |
| Where does the transection occur to cause quadriplegia? | in the cervical region |
| This is a neuromuscular condition involving the destruction of ventral horn motor neurons and fibers of the pyramidal tract, motor neurons progressively die off | Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) or Lou Gehrig’s disease |
| What are the symptoms of ALS? Death? Cause? | loss of the ability to speak, swallow, and breathe, death within 5 years caused by malfunctioning genes for glutamate transporter and or superoxide dismutase |
| What is a congenital disease due to neural tube defects that can be deadly, linked with severe mental impairment? | Spina bifida |
| What is the peripheral nervous system composed of? Function? | all neural structures outside the brain/spinal cord, includes sensory receptors, peripheral nerves, associated ganglia, motor endings. Provides links to and from external environment |
| What are sensory receptors? What does activation of them result in? | structures specialized to respond to stimuli, depolarizations that trigger impulse to the central nervous system |
| Where does the realization of stimuli to sensory receptors occur? | sensation and perception occur in the brain |
| How can sensory receptors be classified? | stimulus type, location, and structural complexity |
| What are the 5 classifications of sensory receptors by stimulus type? | Mechanoreceptors (touch/pressure/stretch/itch) Thermoreceptors (temperature) Photoreceptors (light) Chemoreceptors (chemicals like smell, taste, pH) Nocioreceptors (pain) |
| What are the 3 classifications of sensory receptors by location? | Exteroceptors (stimuli outside body, touch/pressure/pain/temp special sense) Interoceptors (stimuli within body, internal viscera/blood vessels, chemical changes, stretch, temp) Proprioceptors (degree of stretch, skeletal muscles advise brain of move.) |
| What are the 2 classifications of sensory receptors by structural complexity? Which is more common? | Simple is most common (unencapsulated-free nerve endings, encapsulated-specialized structures for particular stimuli) Complex are special sense organs |
| Reflexes require sensation, perception, or both? | Sensation |
| Survival depends on sensation and perception, what does each mean? | Sensation-awareness of changes in environment, Perception- conscious interpretation of stimuli that you sense |
| Where does the input come from in the somatosensory system | exteroceptors, proprioceptors, and interoceptors |
| What are the 3 main levels of neural integration in the somatosensory system? | receptor level (sensor receptors) circuit level (ascending pathways) Perceptual level(neuronal circuits in cerebral cortex) |
| In receptor level processing of the somatosensory system, the recptor must have specificity for ______, the _______ must be stimulated and this energy converted into ________ which reach a threshold before the sensory neuron generates action potential | stimulus, receptive field, graded potential |
| What is adaptation of sensory receptors? Which receptors adapt quickly? Which do not adapt? | Occurs when sensory receptors are subjected to unchanging stimulus so receptors become less responsive, receptors for touch, pressure, and smell adapt quickly while pain receptors and proprioceptors do not adapt |
| For circuit level sensory inputs, a chain of 3 neurons ( _______, __________>, ______) conducts sensory impulses up toward the ______. | first, second, and third order toward the brain |
| What are first order neurons? Where do their soma reside? What do they do? | sensory neurons with their cell bodies in the dorsal root or cranial ganglia, conduct impulses from origin to spinal cord or brain stem |
| What are second order neurons? Where do their soma reside? What do they do? | cell bodies in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord or medullary neuclei, transmit impulses to thalamus or cerebellum |
| What are third order neurons? Where are they located? What do they do? | located in the thalamus, conduct impulses to somatosensory cortex of cerebrum |
| What are the 6 main aspects of sensory perception? | perceptual detection (a stimulus occurred/requires summation) Magnitude estimation (how big ) Spatial discrimination (site/pattern) Feature abstraction (texture/shape) Quality discrimination (sweet/sour) Pattern recognition (meoldy, familiar face etc) |
| What is a nerve? What are the connective tissue coverings of a nerve? | cordlike organ of the PNS consisting of peripheral neuronal axons enclosed by connective tissue (endoneurium-loose CT surrounds individual axon, Perineurium-coarse CT bundles fibers into fascicles, Epineurium-tough fibrous sheath surrounding whole nerve) |
| What are the 3 classifications of nerves? Which is most common? Which two are for cranial nerves? Which is for Spinal nerves? | Sensory (afferent-carry impulse to CNS-cranial) Motor (efferent-carry impulses from the CNS-cranial) Mixed (contain both sensory and motor fibers, most common-spinal nerves) |
| Why is damage to nerve tissue serious? When can nerves be regenerated? What 3 types of cells must coordinate for regeneration? | mature neurons are amitotic but if the soma of a nerve is still intact, the damage can be repaired. Macrohages remove debris, Schwann cells form regeneration tube and secrete growth factors, and Axons eventually regenerate damaged part of nerve fibers |
| T/F- Cranial nerves are not peripheral nerves since they originate directly from the brain | False |
| How many pairs of cranial nerves arise from the brain? What type of classification can these nerves be? How is each identified? | 12 pairs, can be sensory, motor, or mixed |
| Four cranial nerves carry parasympathetic autonomic nervous system fibers that serve ________ and _________. | Internal organs and glands |
| This cranial nerve arises from the olfactory epithelium, has fibers that run through olfactory bulb and end in primary olfactory cortex, and functions solely by carrying afferent impulses for sense of smell (sensory nerve) | Cranial nerve 1=olfactory nerve |
| This cranial nerve arises from the retina of the eye, passes through the optic canals and converge at optic chiasm, continue to thalamus where they synapse with optic radiation fibers that run to visual cortex, is a sensory nerve | Cranial nerve II=optic nerve |
| This cranial nerve has fibers that extend from the ventral midbrain, pass through the superior orbital fissure and go to extrinsic eye muscles, functions as a motor nerve to raise eyelid, direct eyeball, constrict iris and control lens shape | Cranial nerve III=oculomotor nerve |
| This cranial nerve has fibers that emerge from dorsal midbrain and enter orbits via superior orbital fissures, innervate the superior oblique muscle of the eye socket, is a motor nerve that directs the eyeball | Cranial nerve IV=trochlear nerve |
| This cranial nerve is composed of three divisions, conveys sensory impulses from various ares of the face and supplies motor fibers for mastication | Cranial nerve V= trigeminal nerve |
| The trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) has three divisions which are _______, ________, and ___---- | Opthalmic, Maxillary, and mandibular |
| This cranial nerve has fibers that leave the inferior pons and enter the orbit via the superior orbital fissure of the eye socket. This is primarily a motor nerve that innervates the later rectus muscle of the eye | Cranial nerve 6= abducens nerve |
| This mixed cranial nerve fibers leave the pons, travel through internal acoustic meatus, emerge through stylomastoid foramen to lateral aspect of face. Has 5 major branches control facial expression and autonomic impulses to lacrimal/salivary glands,taste | Cranial nerve VII=facial nerve |
| This sensory cranial nerve has fibers that arise fro the hearing and equilibrium apparatus of the inner ear, pass through internal acoustic meatus, and enter brainstem at pons-medulla border. Has two divisions for balance and equilibrium | Cranial nerve VIII=vestibulocochlear nerve |
| This mixed cranial nerve has fibers that emerge from the medulla, leave skull via jugular foramen and ren to throat, innervates part of tongue and pharaynx and conduct taste | Cranial nerve IX= glossopharyngeal nerve |
| This mixed cranial nerve is the only one to extend beyond the head and neck. Has fibers that emerge from medulla via jugular foramen, motor fibers are parasympathetic to the heart, lungs, and visceral organs and its sensory function is taste | Cranial nerve X (vagus nerve) |
| This motor cranial nerve formed from cranial root from medulla and spinal root from superior region of spinal cord, leaves cranium via jugular foramen, supplies fibers to vocal cords/soft palate inervates trapezius/sternocleidomastoid to move head/neck | Cranial nerve XI=accessory nerve |
| This motor cranial nerve has fibers that arise from the medulla and exit the skull via the hypoglossal canal, innervates extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the tongue for swallowing and speech | Cranial nerve XII= hypoglossal nerve |
| How many pairs of nerves arise from the spinal cord? Are they motor, sensory, or mixed? What part of the body do they NOT supply? How are they named? What are the names/how many? | 31 mixed nerves that don’t supply the head, named by where they LEAVE the vertebral column (8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 coccygeal |
| How does each spinal nerve connect to the spinal cord? Each of these has a series of ___ that attach to the spinal cord. This type arises from the anterior horn and has motor fibers while this type arises from sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglion. | medial roots have rootlet. Ventral=motor Dorsal=sensory |
| What are the rami of the spinal nerves? | The short spinal nerves branched into 3/4mixed sensory distal rami 1 small dorsal ramus, 2 larger ventral ramus 3 tiny meningeal branch, 4 rami communicantes (found at the base of ventral rami in thoracic region contains autonomic nervous system fibers) |
| What are nerve plexi composed of? Located? | the interlacing nerve networks formed by the ventral rami (not T2-T12), located in cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral regions, resulting branch of plexus contains fibers from several spinal nerves |
| Why does damage to a single spinal segment not completely paralyze a muscle? | Each muscle receives a nerve supply from more than one spinal nerve (through the mixing of the nerve plexi) |
| What spinal nerves form the cervical plexus? What is the most important nerve of the plexus? | ventral rami of C1-C4 (innervates neck, ear, back of head, and shoulders) most important is phrenic nerve that is the major mixed nerve of diaphragm (for quiet breathing) |
| What spinal nerves form the brachial plexus? What does this plexus innervate? | formed by ventral rami of C5-C8, gives rise to nerves that innervate upper limbs |
| What spinal nerves form the lumbar plexus? What are the major nerves? | arises from L1-L4 ventral rami innervates thigh, abdominal wall, and psoas muscle, major nerves are femoral and obturator |
| What spinal nerves form the sacral plexus? What is the major nerve? What is this nerve composed of? | arises from L4-S4 serves the buttock, lower limb, and pelvis, major nerve is sciatic (longest/thickest of body) which is actually 2 nerves (tibial and common fibular) |
| How can numbness in part of the body be useful for diagnosing back problems? | you can map sensations to different positions in the spine |
| What is a dermatome? What spinal nerves participate in dermatomes? | region of the spin innervated by cutaneous branches of a single spinal nerve, all except C1 participate |
| T/F- Reflex actions always include the central nervous system | True |
| What is a reflex? Are they inborn or acquired? What is involved in reflexes? | a rapid predictable motor response to a stimulus, may be intrinsic or acquired, may involve only peripheral nerves and spinal cord or can also involve higher brain centers |
| What are the 5 components of a reflex arc (circuit)? | receptor (site of stimulus) Sensory neuron (transmits afferent impulse to CNS Integration center-mono/polysynaptic region w/in CNS Motor neuron-conducts efferent impulses integration center to effector Effector-muscle fiber/gland responds efferent impulse |
| Which is faster? Monosynaptic or polysynaptic? | Monosynaptic because more synapses=slower transmission |
| What does the Golgi tendon organs (proprioceptors) do to allow skeletal muscles to perform normally? | inform CNS of what is happening to muscle length and tension |
| The muscle spindles that inform the nervous system of the length of the muscles are composed of 3-10 _________- that have/lack myofilaments in central regions and do/do not contribute to force generation. Serve as stretch receptors | intrafusal muscle fibers lack myofilaments do not contribute |
| What are the 2 types of afferent endings that muscle spindles are wrapped with? | primary sensory endings of type 1a fibers and secondary sensory endings of type 2 fibers |
| What activates the muscle spindle? What reduces tension on the muscle spindle? | stretching activates, shortening reduces tension (but still maintain tension) |
| What initiates the flexor reflex? What are the 2 parts? | painful stimulus causes automatic withdrawal of the threatened body part. Stimulated side is withdrawn while contralateral side is extended |
| What is an example of a stretch reflex? | tapping patellar tendon stretches quadriceps and starts reflex action, quads contract and hamstrings relax |
| What initiates the superficial reflexes? Example? | gentle cutaneous stimulation ie plantar reflex by stimulating lateral aspect of sole of foot respond with downward flex of toes |
| What is Babinski’s sign? | abnormal plantar reflex that indicates corticospinal damage where great toe dorsiflexes and smaller toes fan laterally |
| What is the primary difference between the Somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system? | BOTH parts of PNS; SNS- voluntary control of body.contains all neurons connected with skeletal muscles/skin connects external sensory organs through brain to muscles. ANS- involuntary control system,controls visceral functions between CNS &organs/glands . |
| The Autonomic Nervous System is part of the Peripheral Nervous system that consists of motor neurons that ______ | innervate smooth and cardiac muscle/glands, make adjustments for optimal support for body, subconscious control, has viscera (organs) as most of effectors, involved in homeostasis |
| The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system are both parts of the ____ division of the peripheral nervous system | Motor (efferent) |
| The AutonomicNS is different from the Somatic NS in three main ways | Effectors, Efferent pathways, Responses of target organs |
| The effectors of the Autonomic NS are ______ while the effectors of the Somatic NS are _________. | ANS (cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands) SNS (skeletal muscle) |
| The efferent pathway of the Autonomic NS is ________-- while the efferent pathway of the SomaticNS is_______. | ANS (axons are a 2 neuron chain with lightly myelinated preganglionic neuron and unmyelinated post ganglionic neuron that extends to effector organ) SNS (1 thick heavily myelinated neuron makes up each pathway from CNS to muscle) |
| T/F- Info flow (action potentials) are very fast through the AutonomicNS efferent pathways because they are not myelinated. | False, myelination speeds up transmission |
| What are the 2 divisions of the Autonomic nervous system? | Sympathetic and Parasympathetic |
| The target organs in the Somatic NS can respond in ____________ way while the target organs in the AutonomicNS can respond in _________- way. | SNS- stimulatory, ANS- stimulatory or inhibitory depending on neurotransmitter and effector organs |
| All somatic motor neurons release (neurotransmitter?) which always has an excitatory effect | Acetylcholine (ACh) |
| In the Autonomic NS, Preganglionic fibers release (neurotransmitter?) and postganglionic fibers release (neurotransmitter). The effect on the organ is ____________. | Pre-ACh, Post-norepinephrine or Ach, effect is stimulatory OR inhibitory |
| In the ?NS, the effect on the target organ is dependent upon the neurotransmitter released and the receptor type of the effector. | Autonomic |
| T/F- Most of the time when one branch of the Autonomic NS is active, the other is completely shut down. | False |
| When is the sympathetic division of the Autonomic NS dominant? When is the Parasympathetic? How is homeostasis retained? | Sympathetic-when you are active, mobilizes body during extreme situations (fight/flight). Parasympathetic- during rest, performs maintenance activities and conserves body E. Two divisions counterbalance each other to maintain homeostasis |
| Which division of the Autonomic NS is associated with low body energy usage. It involves the D activities which are_______? Ex? | Parasympathetic- digestion, defecation, diuresis. After eating, your BP, HR, and Respiratory rates are low, Gastrointestinal activity is high, skin is warm and pupils are constricted |
| This division of the Autonomic NS is the “Fight or Flight” system, it involves E activities which are____? Promotes adjustments during high activity by changing blood flow (how?). Ex? | Sympathetic- Exercise, Excitement, Emergency, Embarrassment. Reduces blood flow to organs and increases to muscles. When threatened, HR increases, breathing is rapid and deep. Skin is cold and sweaty and pupils dialate |
| The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions of the AutonomicNS differ. Where do the nerve fibers originate? How long are they? Where are the ganglia? | Sympathetic (short pre and long post, originate in thoracic/lumbar region, Ganglia close to spinal cord) Parasympathetic (long pre and short post, originate in the brain and sacral spinal cord, ganglia in the visceral effector organs.) |
| In the _________ division of the ANS, the ganglia are close to the spinal cord. | Sympathetic |
| In the __________ division of the ANS, the fibers originate in the brain and sacral spinal cord | Parasympathetic |
| In the _________- division of the ANS, the preganglionic fibers are long and the postganglionic fibers are short. | Parasympathetic |
| The paravertebral ganglia form part of the __________ ganglionic chain. | Sympathetic |
| What are the 3 pathways a preganglionic fiber can follow after entering the paravertebral ganglia chain? | 1-synapse w/ postganglionic neuron w/in SAME ganglion. 2-ascend/descend sympathetic chain to synapse in another chain ganglion 3- pass through chain ganglion and emerge w/o synapsing |
| T/F- Visceral reflexes have the same elements as somatic reflexes? | True |
| Visceral reflexes are always ________ pathways which makes them slower | polysynaptic |
| What is referred pain? | pain stimuli arising from viscera are perceived as somatic n origin because visceral pain afferents travel along same pathways as somatic pain fibers |
| What are the 2 major neurotransmitters of the Autonomic NS? | Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine |
| (Neurotransmitter?) is released by ALL preganglionic axons and all parasympathetic postganglionic axons. | Acetylcholine |
| (Neurotransmitter?) is released by ALL sympathetic postganglionic axons. | Norepinephrine. |
| Neurotransmitter effects of ACh and NE in the Autonomic NS can be Excitatory or Inhibitory depending on?? | Receptor type |
| Nicotinic ACh receptors are found ________? The effect of ACh binding to nicotinic receptors is __? | motor end plates of skeletal muscle, all ganglionic neurons of BOTH sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of ANS, hormone-producing cells of the Adrenal Medulla. Stimulatory. |
| T/F- A chemical agent that blocks ACh from activating nicotinic receptors will only effect parasympathetic divisions of the ANS. | False |
| Muscarinic ACh receptors are found on ___________-. The effect of ACh binding is ? | all effector cells stimulated by postganglionic cholinergic fibers. Either inhibitory or excitatory depending on receptor subtype of target organ |
| What are the 2 classes of adrenergic (Norephenepherine) receptors? Which receptors are stimulatory? Which are inhibitory? What are the subclasses? Is there an exception? | Alpha (stimulatory) Beta (inhibitory) EXCEPT! NE binding to Beta receptors of HEART is STIMULATORY |
| When does Norepenepherine binding to a Beta adrenergic receptor produce a stimulatory effect? | Heart |
| This drug blocks parasympathetic effects (muscarinic receptor antagonist) and dilates pupils | Atropine |
| This drug inhibits acetylcholinesterase and is used to treat myasthenia gravis, Affects all ACh receptors. | Neostigmine |
| This drug prolongs the activity of NE on postsynaptic membranes in the brain, affects sympathetic | Tricyclic antidepressants |
| These drugs stimulate Alpha adrenergic receptors to reduce blood flow to nasal cavities | OTC meds for colds, allergies, and congestion |
| This class of drugs binds to Beta 1 receptors and reduces the heart rate to prevent arrhythmias by blocking NE | Beta-blockers |
| What type of ANS fibers innervate most visceral organs which results in dynamic antagonisms that precisely control organ activity? | both sympathetic and parasympathetic work together |
| What does the sympathetic activity do to the heart and respiratory rates, digestion and elimination? Parasympathetic? | Sympathetic- increases HR and Respiration, inhibits digestion/elimination. Parasympathetic- decreases HR and respiration and activates digestion and elimination |
| What division of the Autonomic NS controls BP and keeps blood vessels in continual state of partial constriction? | sympathetic |
| What does sympathetic tone do? | constructs blood vessels and causes bp to rise as needed, decreased sympathetic activity prompts vessels to dilate if bp needs to be decreased |
| Does the parasympathetic division have anything to do with BP? | No, if the sympathetic division removes the stimuli, the Blood vessels dilate naturally |
| What does parasympathetic tone do? | slows the heart, dictates normal activity levels of digestive and urinary systems |
| Does the sympathetic division ever interfere with the heart rate or digestive/urinary system? | yes, in times of stress can override effects. Also, drugs that block parasympathetic responses increase HR and cause fecal/urinary retention |
| What is a good example of Autonomic NS cooperation between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions? | control of external genitalia and sexual responsiveness. Parasympathetic- vasodilation causes erection of penis/clitoris. Sympathetic- ejaculation of semen in males and reflex peristalsis in females |
| What functions of the body are NOT subject to parasympathetic influence at all? | adrenal medulla, sweat glands, arrector pili muscles, kidneys, and blood vessels. Thermoregulation, metabolic effects |
| Thermoregulation is controlled by what division of the Autonomic NS? What is it? | Sympathetic; applying heat to skin causes reflex dilation of blood vessels. Dilation brings warm blood to surface and activates sweat glands to cool, when temp falls, blood vessels constrict and blood is retained in deeper organs |
| Metabolic effects are controlled by what division of the Autonomic NS? What does this include? | Sympathetic, increases metabolic rate of cells, raises blood glucose, mobilizes fat as fuel source, increases mental alertness by stimulating reticular activating system of brain |
| Which division of the Autonomic NS exerts short lived, highly localized control? Which exerts longer lasting, more diffuse effects? | Short=Parasympathetic, Long= sympathetic b/c NE is inactivated slower than ACh |
| What is the main integration center of Autonomic NS activity? | Hypothalamus integrates subconscious input from limbic lobe and cerebral cortex, reticular formation and spinal cord |
| What body centers are controlled by the hypothalamus? | heart activity and BP, body temp, water balance and endocrine activity, emotional stages, biological drives, fight/flight |
| What causes Autonomic NS impairments in youth? | injury |
| What causes Autonomic NS impairments in old age? Results? | efficiency decreases resulting in constipation, dry eyes, and orthostatic hypotension |
| What is orthostatic hypotension? | Low bp occurs when sympathetic vasoconstriction centers respond too slowly to body position changes |
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destinylagarce