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Sports and Soci Fina
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Conditions for emergence and growth of commercial sports include a | market economy, large, densely populated cities, a standard of living that provides people with time, money, transportation, and media access, large amounts of capital, and culture emphasizing consumption and material status symbols. |
| Pro sports seldom exist in | labor intensive poor nations. |
| In most of Africa there's not enough capital to develop or sustain professional sports. Teams from wealthy nations now use Africa as a "talent pool" for | recruiting players they can sign for little money compared to European and North American players. |
| The preferences and priorities of people with power and wealth often | influence which sports are commercialized. |
| Golf is enjoyed by wealthy people therefore it | receives TV coverage despite low ratings. |
| Football reproduces an ideology that | privileges men, celebrates masculinity, and reaffirms the cultural priority of competition, therefore it has been heavily marketed and televised since the 1960s. |
| Football is by far the most widely | watched sport in the United States. |
| Commercial sports are so popular in society today because of | the quest for excitement, they fit with social class ideology, widespread and organized such as in competitive youth sports, and there is widespread media coverage. |
| Football offers US fans | rule governed violence, competition, and male warriors all wrapped in US flag and combined with the military, female cheerleaders, and sponsors selling beer and fast food. |
| Sport organizations look for global | markets. |
| Corporations use sports as vehicles for global expansion to | increase profits, and sponsor enjoyment and pleasure and establish ideological outposts in the minds of people worldwide. |
| Making cultural sense of American football is difficult | outside of the US. |
| Corporate branding is accepted in the US and much of the world today as | necessary, non political, and even natural. |
| Corporations looking to establish ideological outposts in the minds of Americans use | sports as a delivery site. Notre Dame partnered with Lucky Strike in the 1950s until too many fans died of lung cancer. |
| Because people watch sports live and don't edit out commercials, televised games and events are | now the hottest programming in media history. |
| Spectator appeal in sports depends on spectator attachments to those involved in the event the | uncertainty of an event's outcome, the risk or financial rewards associated with an event, and the anticipated displays of excellence,heroics, or dramatic actions by athletes. |
| When sports are commercialized there are changes in | structure and goals, orientation of athletes, coaches and sponsors, people and organizations that control sports. |
| Commercial sports involve a shift from | aesthetic to heroic orientations. |
| Aesthetic orientations have an emphasis on beauty and pleasure of movement, | ability and mastery of technical skills, willingness to explore limits and a commitment to staying active and involved as a participant. |
| Heroic orientations have an emphasis on danger and excitement of movement, | style/mastery of dramatic expression, willingness to go beyond limits, a commitment to victory and success of the team/sponsor. |
| Commercial sports are | entertainment. |
| Commercial entertainment depends on | attracting a mass audience. |
| Members of a mass audience lack | technical knowledge about a sport. |
| Entertaining people without technical knowledge requires | heroic action. |
| Rule changes occur to make action more exciting, understandable, and profitable by | speeding up action, increasing scores and scoring chances, balancing competition, maximizing dramatic moments, heightening attachment to players and teams, providing commercial breaks. |
| The goal is to provide a | total entertainment experience. |
| The promotional culture of professional wrestling includes that | events are dramatic spectacles, players display carefully constructed personas, emphasis on heroic action, storylines are simple, emphasize domination, gender differences, and capricious bosses. |
| Professional wrestling is an example of what occurs when | aesthetic orientations are replaced by heroic orientations, the activity changes from sport to spectacle. |
| Ultimate fighting clearly a dramatic spectacle is the | fastest growing media sport in the US. When heroic values are taken to an extreme, this and/or professional wrestling is the result. |
| With commercialization control shifts away from athletes, decisions are less likely to reflect their interests. Control shifts toward | owners, corporate sponsors, advertisers, media personnel, marketing and publicity staff, professional management staff, accountants, and agents. |
| Athletes accept the decisions of these people because | their financial interests are at stake. |
| Owners of professional sports are a | diversified collection of people, usually white men. |
| Owners of teams in many sport leagues have formed cartels which are | centralized organizing groups that coordinate the actions of all team owners in a league. |
| Profits can be great in leagues where | monopoly control and TV revenues are high, but losses may be great under other conditions. |
| Team owners usually make money when allowed to operate as | monopolies and monopsonies. |
| Some fans in England have organized to buy pro soccer teams. They can do this because many teams are owned by stockholders. This could work only for the NFL | Green Bay Packers in the US, the only publicly traded team in pro sports. |
| A monopoly enables team owners to | share revenues, negotiate high media rights fees, prevent the formation of new teams. |
| A monopsony enables team owners to | draft new players to one team only, control the careers of athletes, and minimize bidding for athlete's contracts. |
| Owners benefit when | public money is used to construct and maintain facilities, federal tax deduction loopholes boost profits, cities and states give them tax breaks, tax rebates, and special opportunities for commercial development around a stadium. |
| Owners also benefit when cities that build venues allow them to control | revenues created by the venues such as parking, concessions, seat licenses, and luxury box leases. |
| Stadium subsidies arguments for include that a stadium and team create jobs, stadium construction infuses money into the local economy, team attracts other businesses, a team attracts media | attention to boost tourism and economic development, team creates positive psychic and social benefits such as social unity, civic pride, and sense of personal well-being. |
| Stadium subsidies arguments include that stadium jobs are low paid, part time, and seasonal except for athletes and executives, construction companies and materials often come from outside the local area, new businesses often are | franchises that are headquartered in other cities, entertainment dollars are moved from areas in a region to the area around the venue, thereby undermining local businesses, men's sport teams reaffirm values and orientations that disadvantage many. |
| Sources of income for team owners include | gate receipts/ticket sales, sale of media rights (TV/radio), stadium revenues, and licensing fees and merchandise sales. |
| Amateur sports are self funded and dependent on | corporate sponsors, or funded through a central government sports authority. |
| Amateur sports are controlled by organizations with an interest in two things | power over athletes in their sport, and money generated by events and sponsorships. |
| Athlete in team sports are governed by a reserve system which is a | set of practices that team owners use to control the movement of athletes from team to team. |
| Players have formed unions to challenge the reserve system and gain free agency which is the | right to sell their skills to the highest bidder. |
| Free agency exists to varying degrees in | major team sports. |
| Labor rights for athletes in minor sports are | limited. |
| The legal status of athletes in individual sports varies greatly from | sport to sport and athlete to athlete. |
| Legal status of athletes in individual sports often depends on | what athletes must do to support their training and competition. |
| Legal status of athletes in individual sports status may be partially protected by | professional associations formed by the athletes. |
| A large majority of pro athletes make | limited income. |
| Super contracts and mega salaries for a few athletes have | distorted popular ideas about athlete income. |
| Income among top athletes has risen because | legal status and rights have improved, and league revenues have increased. |
| Salaries for pro athletes in the major men's spectator sports were low until after 1976 when they could become | free agents. |
| The average NBA player made slightly more than the median US family income in 1950. In 2013 he makes | 87 times more than median family income. Average salary for WNBA players is less than median family income. |
| Athlete's salaries do not determine | ticket prices, owners charge what people will pay for tickets, regardless of athletes salaries. |
| Primary issues in CBA negotiations include the percentage of league revenues that must be allocated to | players salaries and benefits, and what is counted as league revenues. |
| Primary issues in CBA negotiations include the extent to which teams can or must | share revenues with one another. |
| Primary issues in CBA negotiations include salary limits for rookies signing their first pro contract, salary restrictions for veteran players and | minimum salary levels for all players. |
| Primary issues in CBA negotiations include the conditions under which players can become | free agents and the rights of those who are free agents. |
| Primary issues in CBA negotiations include a salary cap that sets a maximum payroll for teams and a | formula determining the fines that an owner must pay if the team's payroll exceeds the cap. |
| Primary issues in CBA negotiations include the minimum | payroll for each team in a league. |
| Primary issues in CBA negotiations include the conditions under which players or teams can request an | outside arbitrator to determine the fairness of an existing or proposed contract. |
| Primary issues in CBA negotiations include changes in the | rules of the game. |
| A lockout is an | employer imposed work stoppage that suspends all games and practices until the dispute is resolved and the CBA is revised to the owners and players satisfaction. |
| A strike is a | work stoppage in which employees refuse to work until a labor dispute is resolved and the players and owners agree to sign a new CBA. |
| Many athletes do not make enough to pay | training and travel expenses. |
| There are increasing disparities between top money winners and | other athletes. |
| Top male heavyweight boxers have traditionally made | the most money. |
| Rights of amateur athletes depend on the | governing bodies that control various sports. |
| Income of amateur athletes depends on | the rules of governing bodies, endorsements that vary with celebrity status and corporate interest. |
| Most intercollegiate athletes in the US are controlled by the | NCAA and they have few rights. |
| Lavonne Pepper Paire-Davis, 1924-2013 | was a baseball catcher and infielder who played from 1944-1953 in the all american girls professional baseball league. |
| Mo Ne Davis | Throw like a girl chevrolet commercial, female pitcher at the little league world series. |
| We use media images and narratives as we evaluate ourselves and give meaning to other | people, events, form ideas, and envision the future. |
| Media permeate our lives and sport is a | focus for much media programming. |
| Traditional distinctions between media are now | blurred. |
| Print media | words and images on paper, include newspapers, magazines and fanzines, books, catalogs, event programs, and trading cards. |
| Electronic media | words, commentary, and images transmitted by audio and/or video devices and technologies include radio, television, film, video games, the internet, and online publications. |
| The media provide | information, interpretation, entertainment, and opportunities for interactivity. |
| Media content is always | edited and re presented by those who control media organizations. |
| Editing decisions of media are based on one or more of these goals such as | making profits, influencing cultural values, providing a public service, enhancing personal status and reputation, expressing self in technical, artistic, or personal ways. |
| Media sports, like other aspects of culture are | social constructions. |
| Media representations of sports are carefully edited to | highlight dramatic action. |
| Media representations are shaped by | camera people and editors who select images from various cameras. |
| Those who control media decide which sports and events to cover and the | images and commentary presented in the coverage. |
| Those in media play an important role in | constructing the frameworks that media consumers use to define and incorporate sports in their lives. |
| As those in media make programming decisions, they see audiences as | collections of consumers that can be sold to advertisers. |
| Media usually serve the interests of those with | wealth and power in society. |
| As corporate control of media has become more concentrated, sports programming highlights | action, competition, aggression, hard work, individual heroism and achievement, playing despite pain, teamwork, competitive outcomes, and through commercials, consumerism. |
| The X games were created by ESPN which is owned by ABC, which is owned by | Disney. |
| The people who control the X games don't promote a | noncompetitive, expressive culture in alternative sports, its not in their interest. |
| 99% of all sports programming in the media is sponsored by | capitalist corporations. |
| Characteristics of the new media include that they extend and radically change our connections with the world, are not limited to sequential programming, enable each of us to be the "editors" of our | own media experience if we wish, give oust potential to create our own sport realities and experiences as spectators and virtual athletes. |
| Young people now represent their own sports in | media forms, and fantasy leagues change media experiences related to sports. |
| New media allow people to control when and how they consume sports content but this in itself changes little from when | content was created by a limited number of powerful sources. |
| People can use new media in personally transformative ways, but most often they are used to | complement or create informational and interpretive content related to sports covered mainstream media. |
| Fantasy sports reposition fans | relative to players. |
| Fantasy league players feel empowered by their | ownership of teams and players but sport leagues and media companies now use fantasy sports to generate new revenue and "reentrant" the spectator experience for a key demographic. |
| Demographic for fantasy sports includes | college educated white men, 18-50 years old with higher than average incomes and a willingness to spend over 4 billion annually to obtain data about players and compete in organized fantasy leagues. |
| Research indicates that gamers generally committed considerable time to | their activities. |
| Gamers create their own narratives and stories when they play | sport themed video games. |
| Social relationships are formed and nurtured through | video gaming. |
| Gaming involves a diverse range of experiences, | feelings, and interpretations. |
| Sport themed video games provide | different experiences than consuming televised sports. |
| The graphics and images in video games nearly | match images in televised sports. |
| TV producers now use special filters to make the action in televised games look | like video games. |
| Some athletes use video sport games to | train. |
| Some children today are introduced to sports through | video games. |
| Being good at playing video games is a source of status among many | young people. |
| Virtual sports offer a range of experiences that | current sports do not. |
| Sports do not depend on the media when they are | organized by and for the players themselves. |
| Sports do depend on the media when they are | organized as forms of commercial entertainment. |
| Media coverage attracts attention to | sports and provides news of results. |
| Television coverage remains a key factor in the | growth and expansion of commercial sports. |
| Media companies pay increasingly high rights fees to | broadcast sports, because advertisers know that viewers watch them live and don't edit out commercials. |
| The olympic games are now among the largest | commercial media events in the world. |
| The media enables some athletes to become | global celebrities and benefit from windfall income related to their popularity. |
| The changes often thought to be a direct result of media would have occurred to | boost live attendance, gate receipts, and venue records. |
| General commercial interests exist without the media although | the media usually intensify them. |
| Most changes associated with television coverage have been made willingly by | sport organizations. |
| Most (not all) athletes are wiling to make trade offs in exchange for | the benefits of media coverage. |
| Primary goal of commercial television sports is to | hype events and entertain audiences. |
| Sports are not shaped primarily by | media. |
| Sports are | social constructions that emerge in connection with many social relationships. |
| Media including TV do not operate in a | political and economic vacuum. |
| Media are regulated by | government and market factors, which influence and set limits on media coverage and content. |
| Most media do not | depend on sports. |
| Daily newspapers depend on sports sections for | circulation and ad revenues. |
| Many television companies depend on sports to | fill programming schedules and attract male viewers and sponsors that want to reach them. |
| Many sports events have audiences with clearly identifiable "demographics" which is of | great value for sponsors. |
| Media organizations focused on sports programming are | dependent on sports, such as ESPN. |
| Digital media are especially | invasive technologies. Everyone with a smartphone can create media content. This alters the relationship between fans and athletes. |
| When paying cable and satellite bills, those who don't watch sports subsidize | those who do. |
| There are many commercials during NFL games, because there is less than | 13 minutes of actual playing time during the 210 minutes of television time devoted to a game. |
| As people use electronic media to consume professional sports, local newspapers focus on | local school sports. |
| Rights fees in televised sports have | skyrocketed since the 1960s. |
| Sports programming has | increased dramatically. |
| As more events are covered, ratings for particular events have | decreased. |
| Television companies use sports events to | promote other programming. |
| Television companies are parts of conglomerates that now on teams, sport events, and | other businesses that benefit from sports coverage and its commercials. |
| The sports media relationship is very strong for commercial sports but | other sports are unrelated to the media apart from facilitating communication between participants. |
| The sports media relationship is generally business based, but it also exists for | promoting lifestyles based on consumption and the ideologies that support such lifestyles. |
| A few powerful global media companies control most of the | media representations of sports worldwide. This monopoly has serious implications for what sports we see or don't see. |
| Corporations selling alcohol, tobacco, and food with questionable health value use sports to | promote products in connection with activities that people define as healthy. |
| If corporations selling alcohol, tobacco, and food with questionable health value cannot sponsor televised events they put | signage on people, equipment, and facilities that are viewed during television coverage. |
| Decision making power in large media companies rests with | many male executives who love sports. |
| The vales and experiences of men are | deeply embedded in the cultures of these companies. |
| When sports emphasize competition, domination, and achievement, many male executives feel that | these are crucial factors in their companies. Therefore they are willing to use corporate money to sponsor sports. |
| Media coverage is coverage is constructed around specific themes and messages. For athletes with disabilities, the coverage usually fits in one of these categories. | patronizing, curiosity, tragedy, inspiration, mystification, pity, or surprise. |
| As the athletes disrupt and challenge stereotypes about disabilities the media coverage creates others such as the | heroic super crip, and the courageous victim. |
| Media coverage is constructed around specific ideological themes and messages such as | success, consumption, gender, and race, ethnicity, or nationality. |
| Media coverage with the ideological themes of success often includes | emphasis on winners, losers, and final scores. Emphasis on big plays, big hits, and sacrificing self for team success. |
| When media coverage is constructed around specific ideological themes of consumption often includes messages like | this game is brought to you by....., or this is the....half time report, or this is the... pre game show. |
| Masculinity rules in media sports coverage privileges men over women by | nearly 6 to 1. |
| Heterosexuality is | assumed, homosexuality is erased or ignored. |
| Coverage reproduces dominant ideas about manhood, but may | challenge ideas about femininity. |
| Media organizations are | gendered, they're male dominated, identified, and centered. |
| Media images and narratives based on explicit racial ideology and stereotypes are | rare today but they were common through the 1980s. |
| Coverage today pretends that race and ethnicity | don't exist. Nationality is often a focus in international events. |
| When coverage pretends that race and ethnicity don't exist it allows media people who are ignorant of racial and ethnic perspectives and experiences to | claim expertise when they know little about what and who they cover. |
| Subtle stereotypes about nationality sometimes influence narratives in media coverage, Germans may be described as | organized, Chinese people as self disciplined and secretive, Brazilians as flamboyant and passionate, Nigerians as undisciplined and unpredictable. |
| Media organizations have few directors, editors, assistant editors, reporters, camera people who | represent ethnic backgrounds and experiences. |
| Violence and conflict are frequently given priority in | media coverage, even though it disrupts action in games and matches. |
| College football now attracts large media rights fees due to its | popularity among younger males with high levels of education and higher than average incomes. |
| Research is rare on audience experiences but it appears that | watching television sports is positively integrated into social relationships and social networks. |
| Identities are connected with the experience of watching sports and those identities can be | linked with varying relationships and groups. |
| Couples who cohabitant often watch sports together, and over time most partners | accommodate each other's viewing habits. |
| Active participation in sports, a positive link exists only for those who are already | strongly committed to participation in a sport. |
| Media consumption of sports is positively linked with attendance at elite events but it may decrease attendance at | less elite events, research is needed. |
| The internet provides easy access to | betting on sports opportunities. |
| Betting creates interest in sports but | threatens them if it inspires gamblers to "fix" events. |
| Big screen technology has created | new spectator contexts that have yet to be studied. |
| Sport journalists are not all the same some focus on entertainment and some focus on | information. |
| The work of sports journalists does matter when | it comes to cultural ideology and public consciousness. |
| Tensions between players and sportswriters have intensified as | differences in their salaries and backgrounds have become more pronounced. |
| Ethical issues have become increasingly important in sports journalism because | the stakes are so high for teams, athletes, coaches, and owners. |
| Newspaper and magazine coverage emphasize information and interpretation primarily, offers previews and summaries of events, provides written representations of events, success depends on | credibility, highlights facts and dominant ideology, may criticize sport personalities and organizations. |
| Radio and television coverage have an emphasis on entertainment primarily, offers play by play images and narratives, provides | real time representations of events, success depends on hype and visual action, highlights heroic plays and dominant ideology, and usually supports sport personalities and organizations. |
| Tensions between athletes and sport journalists are | common. Now that athletes have social media to reach fans, some have little patience for journalists. |
| When people say that politics has no place in sports they usually mean that | there is no place in sports for politics that differ from their own. |
| Politics | processes of organizing social power and making decisions that affect the lives of people in a social world. |
| Governments | formal organizations with the power to make and enforce rules in a particular territory or collection of people. |
| Power | the ability to influence people and achieve goals even in the face of opposition from others. |
| Authority | a form of power that comes with a recognized and legitimate status or office in a government, an organization, or an established set of relationships. |
| Reasons for connections between government and sports include to safeguard the public order, to insure fairness and protect human rights to maintain health and fitness, to promote the prestige and power of a group, community or nation, to promote a | sense of identity, belonging, and unity among citizens, to reproduce values consistent with dominant ideologies in society, to increase support for political leaders and government, and to promote economic development. |
| Governments make rules about | what sports are legal or illegal, how sports should be organized to protect rights and well being, who has the right to play sports, where sports may be played, and who can use public facilities and when they can use them. |
| Governments may intervene in sports when citizens are | systematically excluded or subjected to discrimination in sports. |
| Title 9 law in the US made gender discrimination illegal in any activity sponsored by schools receiving | financial aid from the federal government. |
| The US department of Education warned schools that they were not providing equal sport participation opportunities for students with a | disability and provided administrators guidelines for how to do so. |
| Past government support was based on beliefs that | playing sports improves fitness, fitness improves health, good health reduces medical costs. |
| Recent government support often takes into account research showing that | illness is related to environmental factors more than worker fitness, competitive sports have few benefits for productivity, concerns about sport performance may increase athletes demands for health care. |
| Government support is based on the belief that success in sports provides | recognition and status for the sponsoring government unity/agency. |
| National teams bring | international recognition to a country. |
| Local teams bring | recognition and publicity to communities. |
| National governments often | pay athletes a bonus for winning an olympic medal. |
| China spent well over 40 billion to host the 2008 olympic games in Beijing, One of its motives was to gain | international recognition and respect and to demonstrate its power. |
| Public schools and school districts use sports to | promote their prestige. |
| Governments often use sports to promote identity and unity when | constituents are diverse or when change is rapid and widespread in society. |
| Sports often are constructed as | invented traditions to reaffirm ties to imagined communities. |
| Sport based unity is | temporary and superficial. |
| Sports do not change the realities of | divisive everyday differences and inequalities. |
| Sports may be used to promote the idea that success is based on | discipline, loyalty, determination, and fortitude. |
| Sports in nations with market economies are linked to | competition and individualism. |
| Using sports to promote values does not work when | governments lack legitimacy. |
| US sports at all levels are associated with | nation and nationalism. |
| Histories of sports are linked to | struggles over political ideologies. |
| Political leaders use sports to boost their | legitimacy in the eyes of citizens. |
| Many governments sponsor and fund sports to | gain the support of citizens. |
| Cities may use public resources to | bid on and host major sports events. |
| State or local governments may use a sport venue as the centerpiece for a | new housing or business project. |
| Government officials may use a sport event to host developers or others who | may invest in projects that would benefit constituents. |
| Government involvement in sports often fosters the | interests of some people more than others. |
| When government support occurs priority often goes to | elite sports. |
| Those who represent elite sports are organized and possess | resources for effective political lobbying. |
| Those who represent recreational sports are less likely to be | organized to lobby. |
| There has been longstanding hope that international sports could be | open communication lines between people and leaders from many nations, highlight shared interests among people in different cultures and nations, demonstrate that international friendships are possible, foster cultural understanding. |
| There has been longstanding hope that international sports could be used to eliminate national | stereotypes, as well as create a model for international relationships, and establish working relationships that would close gaps between wealthy and poor nations. |
| Sports have no influence when it comes to | serious diplomacy. Sports do not affect matters of vital national interest. Leaders do not use sports in discussions of vital national interest. |
| Sports may be useful at the level of | public diplomacy. Sports provide opportunities to meet and talk. |
| Nation states often use international sports to | foster self interests over international peace and understanding. |
| Ethnocentrism and nationalism often have been | promoted in international sports. |
| Self interests have influenced | bid processes, media coverage, and boycotts. |
| International sports have generally been used to foster | nationalistic interests rather than international unity. |
| Conditions and events in international sports favor the interests of | powerful nations. Sports can become tools of cultural imperialism. |
| The participation of poorer nations in global events usually depends on | assistance from wealthy nations. Sports can become vehicles for gaining control over popular culture worldwide. |
| Suggestions to control nationalism and commercialism in the olympic games include adding to each games demonstration sports native to the cultural regions where the games are held. Using multiple sites for each olympic games, emphasizing | global responsibility in media coverage, integrate the olympic and Paralympics, promote a fair method of calculating medals taking into account population wealth and size, replacing the olympic motto faster higher stronger with health unity and peace. |
| The overall goal to control nationalism and commercialism within the olympics is to | take olympism seriously. Make the olympics more than a global marketing opportunity for corporations and a global stage for wealthy nations to promote their political and economic ideologies. |
| Medal counts distort the purpose of | Olympism and advantage large, wealthy nations. |
| Nation states and transnational corporations are joined in | global power relations. |
| Nationalism exists in international sports but consumerism may replace | patriotism when it comes to identifying with athletes and teams. |
| Corporations tend to use sports to fuse their interests with | national and local symbols with which people identify. |
| Media coverage of global mega events is organized around images and messages that link transnational corporations with | flags, anthems, and athletes representing nation states. Patriotic feelings and consumer desires are seamlessly woven together. |
| The olympics and other international sport events are showcases for | transnational corporations, their products, and the ideology of consumerism. |
| Corporations pay billions to sponsor global sports so they might | develop global outposts in people's heads |
| Corporate images tied to sports do not determine what people will think but they influence | what people will think about. |
| Efforts by the NFL to export football to other nations have generally | failed. |
| The meanings and ideologies associated with football are tied closely to | US history and are not easily integrated into other cultures. |
| Globalization | a process through which financial capital, products, knowledge, worldview, and cultural practices flow through political borders worldwide and influence people's lives. |
| Athletes as global migrant workers raises issues of | personal adjustment, labor rights, national impact of talent migration, and national identity. |
| The production of sport equipment and apparel raises issues of | international labor exploitation and the need for international labor rights organizations and monitors. |
| As the meaning, organization, and purpose of sports have changed there are new questions to be asked about | sports as social phenomena. |
| The most helpful research on the realities of global trends has presented data from both | global and local levels.This helps us understand local expressions of and responses to global processes. |
| Political processes in sports revolve around these issues | what qualifies as sport, what are the rules of sport, who makes and enforces rules, who organizes and controls events, where will events take place, who is eligible to participate, and how are rewards distributed. |
| Politics and political processes are inherent in organized sports, our goal is to | make them fair and just. |
| The untied states is the only country where it is taken for granted that | high schools and colleges sponsor and fund inter school varsity sport programs. |
| Arguments for interscholastic sports include that it involves students in activities and increase interest in school, it builds self esteem and other positive traits, it enhances | fitness and lifetime participation, it generates spirit and unity, promotes support, and develops and rewards valued skills. |
| Arguments against interscholastic sports include that it distracts attention from academics, it creates dependance and conformity, there are too many injuries and too many spectators, creates | superficial, transitory spirit, is a waste of resources, creates pressure, and a distorted status system. |
| Those who try out for, make and stay on school sport teams often have | unique traits. This makes it difficult to say if playing sports is a unique developmental experience. |
| Grades may be higher in season because | coaches, parents, and teachers monitor athletes closely. |
| The US is the only country in the world where high schools and colleges fund | elite varsity teams and provide special awards and status for athletes. |
| Research shows that there are differences between students who | play varsity sports and those who don't. |
| Most of the differences between those who do play varsity sports and those who don't are due to | selection in, filtering out, and in season control processes. |
| Those who play varsity sports often have preexisting characteristics making them | different from those who don't play. |
| Research on the consequences of playing varsity sports is difficult to do because | growth and development among students is related to many factors beyond playing sports, meanings given to sport participation vary by context and from one person to another. |
| Athletes must be studied in context because the meanings given to sport participation vary according to the status associated with being an athlete in various contexts, the identities young people develop as they play sports, the ways that young people | integrate sports and an athlete identity into their lives. |
| Be careful when generalizing about the | educational value of sports. |
| Longitudinal and qualitative studies are needed to | identify changes related to sport participation. |
| Varsity athletes may be treated differently by | significant others. |
| Varsity sports exert an influence on the larger student culture in high schools but we | don't know much about this. |
| The impact of sport participation depends on the | meanings given to it and meanings emerge through social interaction with many people in and out of school. |
| Meanings given to sport participation vary with three factors | the status given to athletes and sports in different contexts, the identities that young people develop as they play sports, and the ways that young people integrate sports and an athlete identity into their lives. |
| Research indicates that the effects of playing school sports depend on | the contexts in which sports are played, the organization of sport programs, and the social characteristics of athletes. |
| Being a student athlete often is a source of | status and popularity more for young men than young women. |
| Sports are sites for | major social occasions in the school. |
| Sports often reproduce dominant ideologies related to | gender, social class, and race and ethnicity. |
| Before 1980 high school girls who played sports were often viewed | negatively. Today young women feel comfortable expressing themselves on varsity sports teams. |
| Some women's sports receive attention equal to the attention | received by men's sports in high schools and colleges. |
| Interscholastic sports are most likely to be positive learning experiences if they | enable students to be noticed, rewarded, and taken seriously as human beings, connect young people with adult advocates and mentors, are explicitly linked with non sport situations and how to succeed in them. |
| There is a lack of systematic evidence on what is | learned in sports. |
| Intercollegiate sports are not all the same they vary by | division in the NCAA, type of program and team, the cultures that are created on teams, and the importance of sports in the context of the campus and larger community. |
| Division 1 programs usually emphasize football or men's basketball and their | revenue generating potential. |
| Revenues for division 1 programs can be high but | very few teams or athletic departments make more money than they spend. |
| Division 1 programs athletic scholarships may be awarded within | limits set by the NCAA. |
| Division 1 programs teams often | travel extensively, and the quality of skills and competition is high. |
| Participants in revenue sports (football and basketball) often have | scholarships. |
| Time and energy commitments to sport are high and participants often must choose between | working out and practicing sports, doing coursework, or engaging in social activities. |
| Academic detachment is a commonly used coping strategy among | male athletes. |
| Athletes often are overrepresented in certain | courses and majors. |
| Athletes in entertainment oriented sports often enter college with | lower grades and standardized test scores than other entering students. |
| Graduation rates among all varsity athletes are | slightly higher than rates for all students. |
| Graduation rates in some big time revenue sports are | shamefully low. |
| Female athletes have higher | graduation rates than male athletes. |
| Black athletes have graduation rates higher than | black students as a whole, but lower than rates for white athletes. |
| Athletes who most successfully balance athletic and academic commitments are those who have past experiences that consistently reaffirm the importance of education, social networks that support academic identities, perceived access to career opportunities | following graduation, and social relationships and experiences that expand confidence and skills apart from sports. |
| Restoring and maintaining academic integrity is difficult when athletic success is tied to | big money and the emotions and identities of boosters an alumni. |
| Raising academic standards is important but it must be done so | it does not unfairly exclude certain students. |
| Current academic sanctions include | reduction of scholarships, ban schools from post season games, suspending entire athletic department if graduation rates fall below a certain level for multiple years. |
| Research is needed on academic support programs because they | vary from campus to campus. |
| Recent media coverage suggests that some academic support programs | focus more on eligibility than learning. |
| Too many academic support programs are administered by athletic departments rather than | tenured faculty. |
| The purpose of new rules and standards passed from 1983-2008 was to: send messages to students in HS and college that academic achievement does matter in college sports, set new guidelines for universities that had ignored academic issues, provide to | college athletes the support they need to succeed academically, and establish sanctions for teams and universities that do not meet standards. |
| New NCAA rules for division 1 schools include a | academic progress rate, and graduation success rate. |
| Academic progress rate (APR) | calculated each semester, 1 point awarded for each player eligible and each player returning to school, point scores are adjusted for team size. |
| Graduation success rate (GSR) | proportion of athletes entering a school during a 4 year window ad graduating in 6 years, adjusted for transfers and players turning pro. |
| In the face of budget problems, schools use these strategies | asses sport participation fees, depend on support from booster clubs, and seek corporate sponsorships. |
| As injuries become an issue, the cost for protective equipment and liability insurance increase, this may force some schools to | drop certain sports. |
| Research shows that spending money on big time college sports increased four times faster than academic budgets in recent years, has no effect on general academic quality or the academic qualifications of incoming students, does not | increase alumni donations, does not improve win-loss records, creates a massive wealth gap between athletic departments, and will never change the fact that half of all games are lost when good teams play each other. |
| In recent years well over 1 billion in public tax money and half a billion in student fees have been used to | cover deficits at public institutions each year. |
| The belief that football pays for all sports, especially women's sports is true only in a few universities where teams are in | conferences that receive large media rights fees. |
| In most NCAA schools, women's sport programs have smaller financial deficits than men's sports. Therefore men's sports have a higher | net cost than women's sports. |
| Primary issues causing uncertainties in sports are | cost containment and budget inequality, changing orientations and rising expectations, injuries, especially to the brain, educational relevance, gender inequity, opportunities for students with a disability. |
| The cost of HS and college programs has increased far beyond the rate of inflation and academic expenditures given current expenditures, | most sport programs are unsustainable financially. |
| Budget and program inequality has become so great that it | creates difficulties in scheduling games. |
| Some private high schools have budgets many times greater than | the public schools they play. |
| The university of Texas has an annual athletic budget of over 160 million, other universities with football teams have annual budgets of | less than 25 million. |
| This form of inequality is self perpetuating, championships and even winning seasons are beyond | hope for poor programs. |
| HS and college players today increasingly come from its all about me club and youth programs and they | expect special treatment in varsity programs. |
| Parents of athletes today are more directly involved in the sport careers of their children and they | have expectations for HS and college programs. |
| Athletes are becoming more assertive about how they should be | treated when it comes to their health and time commitments to sports. |
| As injury rates increase in many sports, and as more reports are published on brain damage caused by concussions and repetitive subconcussive head trauma the | liability issues become great. |
| Universities have clearly been negligent in informing athletes of risks and they are | being sued for this. |
| High schools deal with young people under the age of legal informed consent so their | liability issues are massive. |
| Football, ice hockey, and soccer are most likely | to be impacted. |
| Educators at schools that sponsor sports that do regular damage to | students brains are in trouble. |
| Tensions between core missions of universities and | commercial values of high profiles ports have grown since 1990 as universities pursue television contracts, FB bowl game invitations, and NCAA basketball championships. |
| ADs have turned into | profit seeking programs with diminished educational relevance. |
| In FBS Conference schools the annual median spending for athletes exceeds academic spending for students by | three to twelve times. |
| During March Madness, library use declines at universities with teams in the tournament, students viewed | 6 percent fewer articles a day as long as their team was in contention. |
| When a team won an upset or close game, article access fell | 19 percent the day after the victory. Neither dip was made up later with increased downloads. |
| At the University of Texas, non football athletes receive about | 7000 hours of tutoring a year. Members of the FB team receive 12,000 to 15,000 hours of tutoring annually, over 100 hours per football player. |
| Only 1 in 10 UT undergrads | receives tutoring, at an average of a little more than 13 hours each. |
| At the high school level there are many districts that have | never had gender equity across their schools. |
| Only a handful of colleges and universities have consistently | had gender equity in their athletic programs. None of the offending schools has ever been fined by the US department of justice. |
| Women are far underrepresented in all leadership positions and | professional staff, there have been no major positive changes for over a decade. |
| Since 1999, men have been hired in nearly | 75% of the job openings for women's college teams. |
| Women coach only 2 | 3.5% of men's teams and usually these are gender mixed teams. |
| Student fees from women on campus subsidize men's sports more than | football subsidizes women's sports. |
| Since 1995 there has been no progress in | closing the gap between boys and girls in high school sports. |
| US department of education guidelines require that schools take seriously the | sport participation of students with disabilities. |
| These guidelines are creating panic due to | financial power of federal government support for higher education. |
| Basketball, bowling, floor hockey, soccer, softball, and track are | approved high school sports for adapted paravarsity programs. |
| As schools and coaches strive for state rankings, team membership increasingly requires | massive time commitments, year round specialization in one sport, off season training, and club participation. |
| This focus cannot be defended in educational terms, so much time, attention and funding go into sports that it | skews the culture of schools away from academic focus. |
| As budget fails to meet expectations of parents and community boosters, they raise funds for programs, but | then want to participate in managing them. Their focus is on the field excellence with little or no attention paid to academic issues. |
| Issues in college sports programs include | scandals and rule violations, likeness lawsuits, pay for players, and distorted racial and ethnic priorities. |
| Scandals and rule violations include | academic cheating, athlete criminal actions and sexual assault, rule violations by coaches and boosters. |
| Likeness lawsuit means | if the NCAA has violated antitrust laws, court rulings could force it to pay billions to former players and current players. |
| Pay for Players this issue is forcing the | NCAA to make significant changes, even before any court rulings. |
| Distorted racial and ethnic priorities schools see African Americans as | valued as revenue producing athletes but not as general students. |
| African Americans are successfully recruited to play football and men's and women's basketball but | for little else. |
| Sources of isolation for black athletes include, racial and ethnic stereotypes used by some people on campus, the amount of time that athletes must devote to their sports, campus activities often fail to represent the | interests and experiences of black students, making them feel unwelcome, Black athletes, feeling unwelcome may withdraw from activities that could connect them with other students. |
| White students who lack experience in racially diverse groups may not interact | freely with black athletes. |
| Tensions are created when white students conclude that black athletes have | things easy and are unfairly privileged. |
| The combination of religion and sport is especially common among | Christian athletes in the United States. |
| Religions are | integrated and socially shared beliefs and rituals that people accept on faith and use as a source of meaning, guidance, and transcendence. |
| Relgious beliefs and rituals link people's lives with | a supernatural realm or a divinity. |
| Religions and ideologies are similar although ideologies are linked with | the secular, here and now, material world. |
| Depending on conditions, religion and religious beliefs can lead to | powerful forms of group unity, a spirit of love and acceptance, commitment to prevailing norms, acceptance of systems of power or devastating group conflict, moral judgments and condemnation, rejection of prevailing norms, or rejection of power. |
| Religious beliefs and rituals are always | connected to a sacred and supernatural realm. This connection is based on faith, which is the foundation of all religions. When a religion is challenged, so is the faith of believers. |
| The scared aspects of religion include | objects and activities connected with the supernatural such as churches, sacristy, prayers, and sermons. |
| The secular aspects of religion include | objects and activities connected with the material world such as stadiums, locker rooms, warm up drills, and half time talks. |
| Muslim and Hindu believers dont distinguish between the | sacred and secular as do most Christians. |
| Both sports and religion have places for communal gatherings, emerge out of a | disciplined quest for perfection, are controlled through structured organizations and hierarchical authority, have vents that celebrate widely shared values, have rituals before, during, and after major events, have heroes and legends. |
| Both sports and religion evoke intense emotions and give meaning to people's lives, can be used to | distract attention from important social, political, and economic issues, thereby becoming like opiates. |
| Sports are tied to | secular, goals are here and now victories, rooted in fact, involves competition, rituals and events (instrumental and goal oriented), based on a spirit of achievement and conquest. |
| Religion is tied to | sacred, goals of transcendence, rooted in faith, involves cooperation, rituals and events are expressive and process oriented, based on a spirit of humility and love. |
| People adapt images of their gods to | fit their values. |
| A social constructionist approach is based on combinations of | cultural, interactionist, and structural theories, assumes that the meanings and practices connected with both sports and religions vary by time and place, assumes that variations and changes in sports and religions usually reproduce dominant values. |
| Religions provide people with a set of meanings that influence | ideology (how people interpret the world), actions and relationships, ideas about the body, movement, physical activities, and even sports. |
| Protestant Christian beliefs have supported the ideas that | the body is a tool to be used to establish mastery over the world, competitive success is a legitimate means for demonstrating individual moral worth, and sport participation can be used as a form of religious witness. |
| Elements of the protestant ethic are compatible with the spirit or ethos of sports include | worldly asceticism, rationalization, goal directedness, individualism, achieved status, work ethic, and time ethic. |
| Sport and world religion research is | scarce, doing studies is difficult because some religions don't make sacred versus secular distinctions. |
| Research is needed to understand links between | various religious beliefs and ideas about the body and participation in physical activities and sports. |
| Buddhists and Hindus use physical and spiritual discipline to | transcend the self. |
| Muslims focus on submitting to | Allah's will. |
| Many Muslims ave a gender ideology that strongly influences the | conditions under which believers play sports. |
| Some female Muslim women athletes challenge | traditional Islamic beliefs about the body. |
| Meanings given to sports vary from | one religion to another. |
| Sociologists deal with meanings rather than | rating religions on who has the ultimate truth. |
| As in all religions, Muslims beliefs may be | interpreted and applied in different ways. |
| Fundamentalist Muslims are likely to | enforce strict dress codes for women athletes, and require male permission for females to play sports. |
| Liberal/secular muslim girls and women have | participated in sports without special dress or male permission. |
| Religious doctrine often is interpreted in | different ways by believers. |
| Judasim has been linked with sports when | Jews used sports to disrupt ethnic and religious stereotypes. |
| Shinto consists of rituals and ceremonies that | influence the rules and traditions of Sumo wrestling. |
| Animistic religous beliefs of Native Americans merge the | spiritual and physical worlds. |
| Sumo is steeped in Shino ritual and ceremony but | wrestlers fans, and sponsors do not use Sumo to claim or promote shinto beliefs. |
| Religion is important in most societies but few people assume a | direct link between religious beliefs and sports, as many Christians do. |
| Christians and Christian organizations use sports to | promote spiritual growth, recruit new members, promote fundamentalist belief and evangelical orientations. |
| Sports in the US may be sponsored by religious organizations and churches. This seldom | occurs outside the US. |
| When sports become a central cultural activity, churches may alter services to | attract fans. |
| Universities affiliated with religions have often linked | beliefs and sports to attract students and fans. |
| Athletes, coaches, and teams have used religion to | cope with uncertainty, stay out of trouble, give meaning to sport participation, put sport participation into a balanced perspective, establish team solidarity and unity, reaffirm expectations, rules, and social control, assert autonomy. |
| Athletes, coaches, and teams have used religion to achieve personal | and competitive success, market games and sell tickets. |
| Christian athletes often disagree about | the appropriateness of using prayer to achieve success in sports. |
| Public prayers are allowed at all | private events in the US. |
| All people in the US may pray privately at any time, | no law can prevent this. |
| The US Supreme Court ruled that public prayers at games involving teams from public schools violated | First Amendment guarantees of religious freedom and church-state separation. |
| Some public schools ignore this ruling and continue to | say Christian prayers publicly. |
| When coaches organize or promote team prayer, many athletes feel | social pressure to pray, regardless of beliefs. This can undermine team unity when there is religious diversity among players. |
| Determining the worth of sport participation as an act of worship when | violence and intimidation are part of the game, the aggressive pursuit of personal success is expected, and there is an emphasis on self promotion. |
| Christian religious beliefs and power and performance sports include a | proposed model of conflict, doubt, and resolution. |
| Christian athletes use 3 strategies | focus on ascetic aspects of sport, play sports as before but ignore moral qs, use sports to give witness and evangelize, focus on good works and service off the field, and give priority to religious beliefs by changing behavior, playing pleasure. |
| People in all cultural groups construct | images of deities that reflect their values and experiences. |
| When Christianity is combined with power and performance sports, sports | change very little, religion becomes muscularized, and winning and obedience to coaches and improving skills becomes moral virtues so that the sport ethic is sanctified. |
| Sports are social constructions they can be | invented, redefined, and changed. |
| The meaning, purpose, and organization of sports in the future will be | based on the collective decisions and actions of human beings. |
| Sports are | contested activities when people struggle over those decisions. |
| Power and performance sports will be dominant in immediate future because | they reaffirm dominant ideologies, and corporate sponsors give priority to these sports because they reaffirm their interests. |
| Power and performance sports are exclusive and | create more spectators than participants. |
| Power and performance sports popularity depends on | power staying in the control of men who value conquest over others. |
| Pleasure and participation sports will grow as | connections are valued over confrontation and domination. |
| Corporate sponsors may support pleasure and participation sports more in the future as | people question dominant ideologies. |
| Factors that support the growth of pleasure and participation sports include | concerns about health and fitness, participation preferences of older people, values and experiences that women bring to sports, and groups seeking alternative sports and new ways to do sports. |
| College club sports offer sports that combine elements of | power and performance and pleasure and participation, such as ultimate frisbee. |
| People with power and influence use power and performance sports to | reaffirm the ideologies that legitimize their position in society. |
| Factors supporting power and performance sports include that they are easy to market and sell this is because | media can focus on individuals and their stories, fans identify with individual athletes who endorse products sol to fans, |
| Women and men will play more sports together that are sports organized | for pleasure and participation more than power and performance. |
| Those who favor unstructured activities will | seek alternatives to power and performance sports. Alternative sports now include much more than extreme sports. |
| Many alternative sports are not extreme. They may involve competition but | they're organized around a pleasure and participation model. |
| Many pleasure and participation sports offer health benefits as well as | connections with other people and the environment. |
| Corporations in Japan use pleasure and participation sports to | develop good working relationships between employees. |
| People with disabilities will also seek connections through | sports with other people and with the environment. |
| Factors influencing sports trends today include | organization and rationalization, commercialization and consumption, telecommunications and electronic media, technology, and demographic changes. |
| Current trends for sports for people with disabilities has been caused by | increase in people disabled by ware, lack of medical care, and poverty, increasing recognition that people with disabilities desire to play sports and have a right to expect opportunities, continuing use of sport participation as therapy. |
| Current trends for sports for people with disabilities has been caused by more sports for elite athletes with disabilities, new technologies that | facilitate sport participation, more visible examples of sports for elite athletes with disabilities, emerging ideas, vocabularies, and orientations that support people with a disability and their participation in sports. |
| Miracle league and field is grounded in | idealism, created by idealists with a vision for increasing opportunities for young people with disabilities, related to the needs of 6+ million children in the US and thousands of soldiers whose injuries caused physical impairments. |
| Accessible playing surfaces and sport facilities make it possible for | people to play sports under encouraging conditions. |
| Will video sport games and virtual sports replace | on the field games among some children. |
| Trying to improve skills on your own terms is different from doing a routine over and over to meet someone else's standards. Once we feel this distinction in our own sport participation, we become | much more creative as we think of how to do sports and incorporate them into our lives. |
| Conservative goal of growth is based on the belief that sports should | expand and become more efficient in their current forms, emphasizes management issues and improving performance. |
| Reformist goal of improvement is based on a belief that sports are | positive and participation opportunities should be increased, emphasizes social inclusion, equity, and fairness. |
| Radical goal of transformation is based on the belief that | dominant sports are fatally flawed and must be reorganized or replaced, emphasizes a critical approach along with structural and ideological changes. |
| Vantage points for making changes include | work within the system of sports, join opposition groups, create new or alternative sports, and work outside sports. |
| Viewing sports as social constructions may cause some people | to be defensive because they resist the idea that we can or even should change sports. |
| Participants can change the way sports are organized and played to meet their interests. This is done frequently by | people not contained by the great sport myth or a desire to follow official rules. |
| Being an effective agent of change requires | visions of what sports and social life could and should be like, willingness to work hard on the strategies needed to turn visions into realities, political abilities to rally the resources that make strategies effective. |
| Cultural theories | explain how people use power to maintain sports to represent their interests and how they resist change, goals are usually reformist, seldom conservative, and occasionally radical. |
| Changing sports requires | changing symbols, values, vocabularies, beliefs and ideologies, empowering people to create sports on their own terms, and a strategic focus on inclusion. |
| Interactionist theories | explain that people often resist reformist and radical changes because the status quo supports valued identities. |
| Goals when combined with cultural theories are | reform and transformation. |
| Changing sports requires | changing socialization processes, identities, and priorities given to various role models and significant others. Tactful, evidence based strategies that defuse resistance, and developing alliances with people in sports. |
| Structural theories explain that | social worlds are organized around values and interests and that changing sports has implications for overall patterns of organization. |
| Goals can be | conservative, reformist, or transformational (depends on type of theory used) |
| Changing sports requires | changes in relationships and patterns of organization, more equitable distribution of material resources and access to power and economic opportunities, and regulation of economic processes. |
| Transforming sports is a challenging task efforts are | met with strong resistance. |
| Believers in the great sport myth know that sports as they currently exist | are the way they should be. |
| Athletes have celebrity and market status but | little real power to reform or transform sports or society. Therefore they focus on conservative goals. |
| If athletes endorse deep changes in society, they | risk losing support and media coverage. Athletes often focus on non contentious issues and use conservative strategies. |
| To become change agents, athletes require the | support of established organizations that can provide them with cover. |
| Professional sport teams often have programs that | serve local populations. |
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