the use of excessive physical force, which causes or has obvious potential to cause harm or destruction.

Violence is not always

illegal or disapproved, may be praised as necessary to achieve goals.

verbal or physical actions grounded in an intent to dominate, control, or do harm to another person.

Aggression is not the same as

trying hard or being assertive and achievement oriented.

Initimidation refers to

words, gestures, and actions that threaten violence or aggression.

Violence in sports is an issue today partly because it may reproduce gender ideology that

privileges men over women at the same time that it endangers many men.

Types of on the field violence include

brutal body contact, borderline violence, quasi-criminal violence, and criminal violence.

When violence is associated with excellence, athletes may learn to

see it as a normal part of sports.

Players may not like violence but

most accept it as part of the game.

Quasi-criminal and criminal violence are

routinely rejected by athletes and spectators.

Violence may be related to

insecurities in high performance sports.

Expressions of violence are related to

masculinity, but not limited to men.

Physicality and facing violence creates

drama and excitement, strong emotions, and special bonds of mutual support among athletes.

Commercialization and money expand the

visibility of violence in sports and encourage a promotional rhetoric that uses violent images.

Violence is not caused by TV and money

it existed long before TV coverage and big salaries.

If we want to understand violence in sports, we must understand

gender ideology and issues of masculinity in culture.

Women UFC fighters disrupt orthodox gender ideology, but reaffirm n emphasis on

domination that works to their disadvantage.

Power and performance sports when they encourage violence emphasize

differences between men and women.

In non contact sports violence is usually limited to

using violent images in verbal statements.

Male players learn to use violence as a

strategy. In contact sports, enforcers and goons are paid to do violence.

Female players learn to use violence as a

strategy in contact sports, but they don't use it to prove femininity.

Violence is most likely when sports are organized in ways that

produce hubris, separate athletes from the community, encourage athletes to think that others do not deserve their respect.

Disabling injuries caused by violence are

a serious problem in some sports.

Dominant ideas about masculinity are related to

high injury rates in men's sports.

Vested interestes in collision sports are so strong that many people

refuse to heed what science is saying.

There is no form of headgear that prevents the brain from

hitting the inside of the skull during violent collisions or rapid head rotation, helmets provide the illusion of safety.

The most effective strategies might involve

suspensions for players, or fines for team owners.

Ultimate fighting is organized around

brutal body contact and borderline violence, rules exist only to remain a legal sport in the United States.

Research suggests that the relationship between violence on the field and violence off the field depends on

the meanings that athletes give to their on the field actions, and the context in which athletes seek and maintain status off the field.

Control of violence may be learned if sport cultures emphasize

non violence, self control, respect for self and others, physical fitness, and patience.

To focus only on athletes distracts attention from the

larger problem of violence against women.

Sexual assault and rape are vastly underreported crimes due to

gender relations, popular misconceptions about the meaning of no, and police investigations that are insensitive to rape victims.

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Sports in Society 2

Question	Answer
Violence is	the use of excessive physical force, which causes or has obvious potential to cause harm or destruction.
Violence is not always	illegal or disapproved, may be praised as necessary to achieve goals.
When violence involves widespread rejection of norms it may signal	anarchy.
When violence involves extreme over conformity to norms it may signal	fascism.
Aggression is	verbal or physical actions grounded in an intent to dominate, control, or do harm to another person.
Aggression is not the same as	trying hard or being assertive and achievement oriented.
Initimidation refers to	words, gestures, and actions that threaten violence or aggression.
Research shows that violence was more severe in the past both	on and off the field.
Rates of sports violence have not	increased over time.
Violence in sports is an issue today partly because it may reproduce gender ideology that	privileges men over women at the same time that it endangers many men.
Types of on the field violence include	brutal body contact, borderline violence, quasi-criminal violence, and criminal violence.
When violence is associated with excellence, athletes may learn to	see it as a normal part of sports.
Coaches may expect players to	use violence.
Violence often attracts	media attention.
Players may not like violence but	most accept it as part of the game.
Quasi-criminal and criminal violence are	routinely rejected by athletes and spectators.
Violence may be related to	insecurities in high performance sports.
Expressions of violence are related to	masculinity, but not limited to men.
Physicality and facing violence creates	drama and excitement, strong emotions, and special bonds of mutual support among athletes.
Some athletes are paid to do	violence.
Commercialization and money expand the	visibility of violence in sports and encourage a promotional rhetoric that uses violent images.
Violence is not caused by TV and money	it existed long before TV coverage and big salaries.
If we want to understand violence in sports, we must understand	gender ideology and issues of masculinity in culture.
Violence is grounded in	general cultural norms.
Violence in sports is not	limited to men.
Playing power and performance sports often are ways to	prove masculinity.
Women UFC fighters disrupt orthodox gender ideology, but reaffirm n emphasis on	domination that works to their disadvantage.
Doing violence in sports reproduces the belief that	men are superior to women.
Power and performance sports when they encourage violence emphasize	differences between men and women.
Sports violence reproduces an ideology of	male entitlement.
In non contact sports violence is usually limited to	using violent images in verbal statements.
Male players learn to use violence as a	strategy. In contact sports, enforcers and goons are paid to do violence.
Female players learn to use violence as a	strategy in contact sports, but they don't use it to prove femininity.
Violence is most likely when sports are organized in ways that	produce hubris, separate athletes from the community, encourage athletes to think that others do not deserve their respect.
A paradox in today's sports, people accept violence while being concerned about	injuries caused by it.
Disabling injuries caused by violence are	a serious problem in some sports.
Dominant ideas about masculinity are related to	high injury rates in men's sports.
90% of all serious injuries in college football occur on	legal plays.
As research shows that concussions and repetitive sub concussive head trauma can cause both temporary and permanent brain damage some people are begin inning to question the existence of	collision sports.
Vested interestes in collision sports are so strong that many people	refuse to heed what science is saying.
There is no form of headgear that prevents the brain from	hitting the inside of the skull during violent collisions or rapid head rotation, helmets provide the illusion of safety.
Brutal body contact is the most difficult	form of violence to control.
Most injuries occur on	legal hits.
The most effective strategies might involve	suspensions for players, or fines for team owners.
Ultimate fighting is organized around	brutal body contact and borderline violence, rules exist only to remain a legal sport in the United States.
Research suggests that the relationship between violence on the field and violence off the field depends on	the meanings that athletes give to their on the field actions, and the context in which athletes seek and maintain status off the field.
Control of violence may be learned if sport cultures emphasize	non violence, self control, respect for self and others, physical fitness, and patience.
Assault an sexual assault by males are serious problems in the	US and many other societies.
To focus only on athletes distracts attention from the	larger problem of violence against women.
Valid and reliable research on the dynamics of such violence perpetrated by	athletes is difficult to do.
Sexual assault and rape are vastly underreported crimes due to	gender relations, popular misconceptions about the meaning of no, and police investigations that are insensitive to rape victims.
Violece is related to support from fellow athletes for using	physical force as interpersonal strategy.
Violence is related to	perceived cultural support for domination as basis for status and identity among men.
Violence is related to	social bonds created by collective over conformity to the norms of the sport ethic.
Violence is related to	collective hubris among athletes and the notion that outsiders do not deserve their respect.
Violence is related to the belief that women are	groupies in sport worlds.
Violence is related to institutional support for	elite athletes regardless of their actions.
Violence is related to	institutional failures to hold athletes accountable for deviance.
Violence is not usually a problem among spectators watching	non contact sports.
Violence is occasionally a problem among spectators watching	collision sports but the causes of that violence varies by situation.
Evidence indicates that the rates of spectator violence today are	lower than rates in the past, and that nearly all sports spectator violece involves men.
Spectators bring with them the	histories, issues, controversies, and ideologies of the communities in which they live.
When tensions and conflicts are intense and widespread	confrontations may occur. Sports events may be used as sites for confrontations.
Racial, ethnic, and class divisions increase the	likelihood of violence. Nearly all spectator violence involves younger men.
The language used by sport spectators refers to	violence.
There is little research on spectator violence in venues where	crowds watch events on large outdoor screens.
Research is needed on celebratory violence associated with	certain sports. This violence is difficult to control when it occurs in diverse locations away from the stadium.
Violence is always related to	the context in which it occurs.
Spectator violence is most likely to occur when male spectators are	unemployed and alienated from society generally.
Spectator violence is most likely to occur when groups of male spectators see violent confrontations with	police or opposing fans as a means of creating excitement and gaining status.
Spectator violence is most likely to occur when	male spectators use the stadium as a site for expression nationalism, racism, extreme positions on social issues, political opposition to local or national officials perceived as autocratic and corrupt.
More spectators have been killed in mass panics and accidents at sports events than	from any intentional violence.
Panics are linked with many factors but they are field by	emotional contagion.
Emotional contagion is the	rapid formation of social norms that large numbers of people follow simultaneously.
The most common factor in deadly panics is a	lack of escape route.
When thousands of people flee in fear and hit a blocked exit	people are crushed and trampled.
Celebratory riots are often defined as	over exuberant fans expressing team loyalty until someone had to pay for the destruction they caused.
Some police forces have learned to anticipate celebratory riots and	how to disburse crowds without creating confrontations.
Frustration riots are rare, they usually occur in response to a	perceived injustice that determines the outcome in the final minutes of a game, violence between players often is a precipitating incident.
Both celebratory and frustration riots are linked with	the extent to which a team is a source of spectator's identities.
Crowd dynamics and situational factors related to spectator violence include crowd size, composition of crowd, meaning and importance of event, history of relationship between teams, crowd control strategies at events,	alcohol consumption by spectators, location of event, motivations for attending the event, and importance of teams as sources of identity for spectators.
Perceived violence on the field is	positively related to crowd violence.
Historical, social, economic, and political issues underlying	spectator orientations.
Employ visible coaches and athletes to	give anti-violence messages.
Use on field rituals to highlight	connections between opponents.
Make spectators aware of anti violence norms and promote	civility towards other fans.
Regulate	alcohol consumption.
Limit use of social control methods that	dehumanize spectators or limit attendance.
Law enforcement officials must be	well trained.
Long term control depends on the	extent to which anti violence norms are established and maintained in stadiums and by people in attendance at events.
Terrorism is	a special form of violence designed to intimidate a target population of people for the purpose of achieving political or social goals.
Terrorism occurs most frequently in	divided societies, or when oppressed populations have an oppositional political agenda.
Although sport events appear to be likely targets for terrorism due to their visibility and media coverage few	deadly attacks have occurred in recent history.
Terrorism at sporting events include	Boston Marathon attack in 2013, domestic terrorism at the 1996 olympic games in Atlanta, Palestinian attack on Israeli team members at the 1972 Olympic games in Munich, Germany.
Terrorism has occurred at sports events in the	past.
Current threats of terrorism have increased	security at sports venues.
Understanding terrorism requires	awareness of global issues.
Sports do not exist in	social vacuums.
Global problems and hostilities may be expressed in	sport crowds.
The threat of terrorism has led to	billions of dollars of security expenses at major sport events worldwide. This is one of the factors that has increased the expenses for host cities and nations.
The women's movement of the 1960s encouraged	women to show their true abilities.
There are complex relationships between sports and the way people think about	masculinity, femininity, homosexuality, heterosexuality, and other aspects of gender and sexuality in society.
Gender ideology	interrelated ideas and beliefs widely used to define masculinity and femininity, identify people as male or female, evaluate forms of sexual expression, and organize social relationships.
Orthodox gender ideology are	ideas and beliefs associated with this two sex approach.
Using the word orthodox is meant to show that this view of gender represents a	traditional way of thinking that many people have internalized as unchanging truth and often linked to their religious beliefs or an overall sense of right and wrong.
Gender ideology resists	change, but it can and often does change as other parts of society change.
Gender ideology in many societies is based on a	two category classification system.
Gender ideology in many societies assumes two	mutually exclusive categories, heterosexual male and heterosexual female.
Gender ideology in many societies presents these categories in terms of	difference, as opposites across physiological, psychological, and social dimensions.
Gender ideology in many societies leaves no	space for those who do not clearly fit into one of the two categories.
Gender ideology in many societies infers the subordination of	women to men when it comes to power and access to power.
Biological sex is not manifested in male or female terms, it is manifested across	many traits in terms of shades of difference.
In most societies, people are forced into one	sex category or the other, and if they don't fit they are socially marginalized.
Being classified in one or the other normative category	limits possibilities for all people.
Males are defined as superior in terms of	traits that are connected with status and power.
Women are defined as inferior to	men except in their ability to nurture.
Social worlds tend to be male	dominated, identified, and centered.
Male dominated	ability and performance qualifications are associated with masculinity.
Male identified	sports are a "man' world" that emphasizes values associated with men and manhood.
Male centered	men and men's lives are the expected focus of attention in stories, legends, and media coverage related to sports.
Gender ideology is defined in ways that	give some men more access to power while restricting the range of behavior for all men.
Gender ideology is defined in ways that marginalize	gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transsexuals by categorizing them as "out of normative bounds"
Gender ideology is defined in ways that lead women to	push gender boundaries while men are more apt to police gender boundaries for themselves and for women.
Like many corporate cultures, sport cultures often are	organized to make women feel that they are not fully valued for their abilities.
Females in certain sports may	threaten traditional ideas about gender.
Through history, myths have been used to	discourage participation by girls and women.
Encouragement varies by sport, and whether	the sport emphasizes grace or power.
Being a tomboy is okay as long as	traditional femininity cues are presented.
Through most of the 20th century gender ideology led to the exclusion of girls and	women in sports.
Prior to the late 1970s most girls in schools had one or two	"field days" each year to engage in sport activities.
Girls and women did engage in physical activities during the early 20th century, but those activities usually emphasized	grace and beauty as the basis for ladylike character.
When women wanted to play sports during most of the 20th century, they often named there team ladies this or ladies that and referred to themselves as ladies to	defuse the threat they presented to men and male control of sport resources.
In southern states men controlled women by identifying them as ladies who would always be ladylike that is	subordinate to me, but taken care of by men.
Today the term lady does not come with these constraints but lady teams continue to	receive fewer resources then men receive.
Gender ideology leads to many strategies when	seeking opportunities to play certain sports.
Women's professional sport leagues	struggle to survive. Including the professional amateur mixed W league supported by the USL soccer organization.
Because gender is not fixed in biology sports are	key sites for maintaining ideas and beliefs about male and female differences.
Sex-tests for women are used to	maintain the two sex classification system.
Sports, especially media sports celebrate traditional	masculinity and the natural power and emotional fortitude of males.
Sport talk and sport images often	glorify a heroic manhood based on being a warrior. Some people use this to legitimize male power and dominance in gender relations.
Some men's sports inspire fantasies of a	heroic manhood in which masculinity is equated with being a warrior. Many boys find this fantasy empowering.
Babe Didrikson	all around female athlete.
Diane Crump	first female jockey in 1970.
Janet Guthrie	First female auto racer in 1970s, first woman in nascar race 1976, first woman in indy car race in 1977.
Nadine Wilson	Madeira High School girls coach 1960s-1980s, ahead of her time as a strong advocate for equality in girls sports. Won 92% of her contests in four sports over 30 year coaching career.
Julie Krone	first female jockey to win a triple crown race in 1993.
Bilie Jean King	tennis 1970s, activist for women's equality in tennis, activist for gay/lesbian rights in sports, winner of Arthur Ashe Courage Award in 1999, inducted into first class of National Gay and Lesbian Sports hall of fame in 2013.
Battle of the Sexes	Bobbie Riggs vs. Billie Jean King in 1973.
Fenuine Risk	1980 Kentucky Derby winner as a filly.
Ruffian	undefeated super filly of the 1970s.
Glenn Burke	baseball player, first athlete in a major team sport to come out as gay to his teammates and owners, but not publicly during his playing career. Originator of the high five with Dusty Baker. Participated in the first Gay Games in 1982.
Ann Myers	basketball player and sports commentator, first woman to sign a professional contract with an NBA team (Indiana Pacers) in 1979.
Renee Richards	transgender tennis player, underwent sex reassignment surgery in 1975 at 41 years old.
In 1976 Renee Richards tried to resurrect her career by playing in the women's professional circuit but was	barred from several tournaments. In 1977 New York Supreme Court ruled that she was a woman and granted Richards an injection against USTA and the USOC allowing her to play in the US Open.
Renee Richards was invited to play in US Tennis Week Open but the USTA withdrew their sanction for the tournament and	organized another one, 25 of the 32 participants in the Open withdrew.
Renee Richards retired in 1981 at age 47 and later	coached Martina Navratilova.
Martina Navratilova	tennis player, one of first active athletes to come out during her active playing career in 1991. First came out as bisexual in 1991, later identified as lesbian. Inducted into first class of National Gay and Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame, 2013.
When Martina Navratilova came out as a lesbian in 1981 as a 25 year old her character was attacked. She lost millions in	endorsement deals and faced challenges from other players, fans, the media, and the general public.
Arthur Ashe	tennis player, after his playing career he acquired the HIV virus in 1988. Came out as an AIDS patient in 1992. Became an advocate to raise awareness about AIDS, created the Arthur Ashe Foundation to defeat AIDS, named Sportsman of the Year in 1992.
Arthur Ashe Courage Award was created in his	honor and is awarded each year at ESPN's ESPY Awards.
Magic Johson	basketball player, retired in 1991 after admitting he had the HIV virus, but returned to play in the 1992 NBA all star game and won the MVP. Did much to raise awareness about HIV and AIDS. Later returned to play for the USA in the 1992 Summer Olympics.
Greg Louganis	diver. Came out as gay in 1995 after his career was over. Controversy over 1988 accident in Seoul Olympics. Became a HIV/AIDS activist. Inducted into first class of National Gay and Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame in 2013.
Dave Pallone	baseball umpire, wrote book titled Behind the Mask: My Double Life in Baseball.
Dennis Rodman	basketball player 1986-2000, said he was bisexual and was going to marry himself.
Jason Collins	basketball player, first NBA player to come out as gay after the 2012-13 season. Became first publicly gay player on any of the 3 major pro sports, 2014. Inducted into first class of National Gay and Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame, 2013.
Jason Collins	basketball player, unique jersey number 98 is a tribute to Matthew Shepherd, a young gay man who was killed in 1998 because he was gay. Death led to the passage of the Matthew Shepherd and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act.
Michael Sam	football player, publicly revealed he was gay before 2014 NFL draft, became first publicly declared gay player to be drafted by NFL. Currently on the practice squad of the Dallas Cowboys. Inducted into National gay and Lesbian sports hall of fame 2013.
Winner of the Arthur Ashe Courage Award in 1999	Michael Sam.
Televised kiss with is boyfriend after being drafted was seen by millions	Michael Sam.
Brittney Griner	basketball, like Michael Sam, she came out as lesbian after her college career and before being drafted by the WNBA. Inducted into National Gay and Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame.
Becky Hammon	first female assistant couch in the men's NBA, for the San Antonio Spurs.
Sport organizations remain the last bastion of	enforced sex segregation in society.
Objective distinctions between male and female cannot be made across all humans by using	chromosomes, hormones, or secondary sex characteristics all of which overlap among men and women.
Sport organizations to use a succession of invalid tests to	make sure women athletes are females that fit their definitions.
Caster Semenya was the latest of many victims of	this approach.
The Current IOC approach to sex testing is	invalid, ethnocentric, discriminatory, unfair to women, psychologically harmful, based only on testosterone level, anti-inclusionary, and based on a double standard and not applied to men for the sake of fairness.
Changing gender ideology is crucial because	gender is a fundamental organizing principle of social life.
Gender ideology influences how we	think about and identify ourselves and others, form and evaluate relationships, present ourselves to others, develop expectations for ourselves and others and how we organize and distribute rewards in social worlds.
Despite orthodox gender ideology notable progress toward gender equity has occurred since the 1970s this progress is due to	government legislation mandating equal rights, the global women's rights movement, the global health and fitness movement, and increased media coverage of women in sports.
Fairness and equity issues revolve around	sport participation patterns compared by gender, gender inequities, and strategies for achieving equal opportunities for girls and women.
Title 9 has benefited millions of girls and women. It remains	controversial among those who say that gender equity is unfair because more males than females want to play sports.
Title 9 requires compliance with	the proportionality test where a five percentage point deviation has been okay, the history of progress test judged by actions and progress over past three years, and the accommodation of interest test programs meet the interests of the underrepresented.
Title 9 in the US has fostered major changes in sport participation	opportunities to girls and women.
Title 9 in the US has evoked continuous resistance since it became law in 1972 it has demonstrated that	laws and law enforcement do not exist in a social and cultural vacuum.
Title 9 in the US has demonstrated that when laws challenge	the ideas and lifestyles of people with power, the legitimacy and enforcement of those laws will be questioned.
In percentage terms women have lost ground relative to men as head coaches in NCAA Division 1 sports. As women's sports have become more important, men are hired for a	greater proportion of the jobs. At the same time, fewer than 3% of men's college teams have women as head coaches.
The global women's movement and the health and fitness movement have opened some doors to women to play sports in	various regions.
Unfortunately, progress toward gender equity in US sports seems to	have stalled since the beginning of this century.
Significant inequities remain in participation rates and absolute numbers for	males and females, support given to female athletes, and access to power positions for women in sports.
Categories of support for athletes include access to facilities, quality of facilities, availability of scholarships, program operating expenses,	recruiting budgets, scheduling of games and practice times, travel and per diem expenses, academic tutoring, number of coaches, salaries for all staff and administrators, medical training services and facilities, publicity for players, teams, events.
In most public spaces in which sports are played, men are more likely than women to claim that space. Women are also more likely to watch men than	men are to watch women play sports. Gender ideology and the structure of opportunities go hand in hand when it comes to sports.
High profile football teams involve more players and more	resources than any other sport team.
High profile football teams promote a culture in which there is	resistance to gender equity.
High profile football teams often are supported by boosters who see gender equity as	an obstacle to the way they do things.
When football is the cultural and structural centerpiece of a school and community gender inequities are	likely to exist and persist over time.
Informal and alternative sports are organized around the	values and experiences of boys and young men.
Participants of informal and alternative sports say that participants say that	inclusion is based on skills, guts, and aggressiveness, not gender.
Most girls and young women feel unwelcome in	alternative sport cultures.
Access to informal sport participation for females is usually	afforded by a male a brother, or friend who serves as an advocate.
Public skate parks have become male turf. To enter these spaces, a female often needs a	male advocate to explain her presence.
When males shape norms and control access to participation, playing like a boy becomes	a prerequisite for playing at all.
Gender inequities also exist in player controlled sports. Girls and women may face greater	access challenges than are faced by boys and men. Boys and men often control access to these sports, and they control access on their teams. Title 9 does not apply to these sports.
Roller derby teams are being formed by women seeking sport experiences on their own terms. The athletes embrace many	ideas and beliefs about femininity. The culture of roller derby is female-dominated, female-identified, and female-centered.
Women are not considered for	half of all coaching jobs.
Women lack fully developed and effective	occupational networks to compete with men.
Search committees often have members who use	orthodox gender ideology to assess job applicants.
Many women lack the support systems and	professional development opportunities that men have had.
Many women avoid careers in sport organizations that are	male dominated, male identified and male centered.
Women experience more sexual harassment, which sets them up to	fail or discourages them from seeking upward mobility in sport organizations.
Women are underrepresented in decision making positions in sports worldwide and progress toward equity is very slow. Men do not give up power	easily, nor do they want to change the male dominated, male identified, and male centered culture of sports.
Barriers to gender equity include budget cuts and	privatization of sport programs.
Barriers to gender equity include resistance to	government regulations.
Barriers to gender equity include few models of women in	positions of power.
Barriers to gender equity include a cultural emphasis on	cosmetic fitness for women.
Barriers to gender equity include a trivialization of	women's sports.
Barriers to gender equity include male dominated	identified, and centered sport organizations.
Some men continue to have a difficult time taking female athletes	seriously as athletes. Gender ideology appears to be deeply grounded in their psyche when it comes to sports.
Events for men have always outnumbered	events for women in the olympics.
The summer olympic games were totally dominated by men until the 1970s when women's participation increased due to global changes produced by	the women's movement that began in the 1960s.
Gender inequities are especially prevalent in the	paralympic games although there have been some positive changes in recent years.
Sports have long been associated with male	heterosexuality and the expression of homophobia.
Growing rejection of orthodox gender ideology has led to	a desire for changes.
Challenges for LGBTs	continue to exist.
In some sports in certain cultural areas	these challenges are extreme.
LGBTs worldwide are careful to	keep identities hidden. If and when LGBTs come out, it is done strategically.
Popular discourse erases	gay men and lesbians from sports.
Gay men and lesbians have less freedom than	heterosexuals when expressing sexuality.
Being ou in sports creates challenges	women risk social acceptance, men risk social acceptance and physical safety.
Most people in sports support a	don't ask don't tell policy about homosexuality.
When Martina Navratilova came out as a lesbian in 1981 as a 25 year old her character was attacked. She lost millions in	endorsement deals and faced challenges from other players, fans, the media, and the general public.
Homophobia	a generalized fear or intolerance of anyone who isn't clearly classifiable as a heterosexual male or female.
Homophobia is a powerful cultural factor that affect everyone because	it creates fears and pressures to conform to traditional gender definitions, and silences all who are not gender normative.
Intersex and trans people have been	ignored or routinely excluded from organized sports.
Intersex and trans athletes push gender boundaries and	create confusion for those using orthodox gender ideology to make sense of the world.
Some sport organizations have taken on the challenge of	creating rules that foster the inclusion of interest and trans athletes.
Strategies to achieve equity include using the law and engaging in grassroots activism. Showing boys and men that they benefit from	gender equity and recruiting them as allies in making changes.
Changing the way we do	sports.
Confront discrimination and be an advocate for	women coaches and administrators.
Be an advocate of fair and	open employment practices.
Keep data on gender	equity.
Learn and educate others about the history of	discrimination in sports and how to identify discrimination.
Inform media of unfair and	discriminatory policies.
Package women's sports as	revenue producers.
Recruit women athletes into	coaching.
Use women's hiring	networks.
Create a supportive climate for	women in your organization.
There is a need for alternative definitions of	masculinity and femininity.
There is also a need for changing the ways we do sports we need to focus on	lifetime participation, supportive vocabularies, gender equity, and bringing males and females together to share sport experiences.
Sport participation can empower women but this does not occur	automatically. Personal empowerment does not always lead to an awareness of the need for gender transformation in society as a whole. Elite athletes seldom are active agents of change when it comes to gender ideology.
Female athletes have much to lose if they are	perceived as radical, feminist, or lesbian.
Corporation driven celebrity feminism focuses on	individualism and consumption, not everyday struggles related to gender.
Empowerment discourses in sports often are tied to fitness and	heterosexual attractiveness.
Women athletes have little control or	political voice in sports or society at large.
Gender equity in sports is a men's issue it creates options for meant o play sports that are not	based only on a power and performance model.
Gender equity in sports is a men's issue it emphasizes relationships based on cooperation	rather than conquest and domination.
Gender equity in sports is a men's issue that provides	opportunities for boys and men to learn how to maintain emotionally satisfying relationships.
In order to achieve full gender inclusion the steps are	exclusion, entry, revise culture, gain power, and inclusion. Currently we are in Entry working on gaining power and revising culture.
Trayvon Martin	shooting victim in Florida in 2012.
Jordan Davis	shooting in Florida in 2012
Michael Brown	shootnig in Ferguson in Missouri in 2014
Protesting Michael Brown shooting in	Ferguson in Missouri in 2014, killed by law enforcement.
Protesting Michael Brown shooting also occurred a the	St. Louis Symphony and the Cardinals vs. Giants playoff game.
John Crawford was killed in a	Wal-mart in Ohio in 2014.
Levar Jones shooting in	South Carolina.
Jesse Owens	track and field star in 1936 Olympics, Berlin. Credited with destroying Hitler's myth of Aryan supremacy.
Earl Lloyd	first African Americn player in the NBA, 1950.
University of San Fransico Dons was an	undefeated team in 1951, nine members of the 51' Dons played in the NFL, three players, Ollie Matson, Gino Marchetti, and Bob St. Clair, were introduced into NFL hall of fame.
Burl Toler	first African American referee in the NFL.
Pete Rozelle	San Francisco Dons publicist, or sports information director who later became commissioner of the NFL.
Texas Western University 1965-1966 NCAA Champion Men's Basketball team was the	first all black lineup to win NCAA championship, credited with desegregating college athletics subjects of the movie Glory Road.
Dan Haskins was the	Texas Western men's basketball coach.
Adolph Rupp	the University of Kentucky coach.
Negro League baseball	A series of leagues that rose and fell from the 1890s to 1950s. The leagues declined after the integration of MLB in 1947. Starting in 1995, the HOF began admitting players from the Negro leagues. In 2006, 17 players and executives were admitted to HOF.
Major league hall of famers Hank Aaron, Ernie Banks, Willie Mays, Larry Doby, Roy Campanella, and Jackie Robinson played	brief stints in the Negro League.
Jackie Robinson	First African American baseball player in major leagues in the modern era, 1947, rookie of the year 1947, most valuable player 1949, had his number 42 retired by every team in MLB 1997, Jackie Robinson Day every player wears 42 2004.
Happy Chandler	Commissioner of the National League
Branch Rickey	General manager Brooklyn Dodgers
Pee Wee Reese	Jackie Robinson's teammate.
Muhammad Ali	boxer, defeated Sonny Liston for World Heavyweight Title 1964, converted to Islam and changed his name shortly after the Liston fight.
Muhammad Ali refused induction into the	US military in 1967 citing his religious beliefs and opposition to Vietnam War, was convicted of draft evasion, stripped of his title and not allowed to box for four years, conviction was overturned by US Supreme Court 1971.
Muhammed Ali regained the heavyweight title in 1974 and 1978 was also the	winner of Arthur Ashe Courage Award in 1997, named sportsman of the century by Sports Illustrated 1999.
Tommie Smith and John Carlos were	Olympic track stars in 1968, the black power salute in solidarity with the Civil Rights movement, were winners of the Arthur Ashe, courage award in 2008.
Curt Flood	baseball player, challenged baseball's reserve clause and paved the way for free agency in baseball and all professional sports. In 1969, the St. Louis Cardinals traded Curt Flood to the Philadelphia Phillies.
Flood refused to report to the Phillies and	sat out the 1970 season.
In 1970 Flood filed suit against Major League Baseball stating that	the reserve clause violated his rights as a US citizen.
MLB Commissioner Bowie Kuhn defended the reserve clause as	being for the good of the game.
The reserve clause gave each baseball team complete ownership over a player. They could keep a player for his entire career or	trade him to any team they pleased without the player's consent.
The reserve clause also helped keep the salaries of player artificially low while	the team owners made millions in profits.
In 1970, Major league baseball adopted the 10/5 rule or Curt Flood Rule which	allows players with 10 years major league service and 5 years with the same tea to veto trades.
After the 1970 season, the Phillies traded Flood to the Washington Senators. Flood played 11 games in 1971 for the	Senators and then retired.
Flood's case wen to the Supreme Court. Active players were	sharply divided over the Flood case. Many sided with management.
Out of fear no active players testified on Flood's behalf. Only two former players one of them	Jackie Robinson, testified in Flood's favor.
In 1972, the Supreme Court ruled against Flood and in favor of	Major League Baseball. Flood lost this battle, but the players won the war.
In 1975 pitchers Andy Messersmith and Dave McNally pitched for	their teams without signing a contract. The next year an arbitrator ruled Messersmith and Dave McNally pitched for thier teams without signing a contract.
The next year an arbitrator ruled Messersmith and McNally were effectively	free agents which nullified the reserve clause.
This strengthened the hand of the Major League Baseball Players Union and	forced ownership to negotiate better contracts with the players.
Today professional players in all sports have benefited because of	Flood's efforts. Baseball had the strongest union in the world.
Provision's in player's baseball contracts include yards 1-3 players are under complete control of the team. Years 4-6 team still controls the player but player can utilize free agency to	increase his salary or bargain for a long term contract. After year 6, the player becomes a free agent and can sell his services to the highest bidder. The 10/5 rule still applies regardless of the player's contract status.
Long term contracts are "guaranteed" meaning that players	get paid for the length of the contract even if their skills deteriorate or they become injured.
Arthur Ashe, tennis player	first black player to be selected for the Davis Cup team in 1963. Only black player to win Wimbledon, US Open, and Australian Open. Wrote a three volume book titled A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African American Athlete.
Frank Robinson	first african american manager in MLB for Cleveland Indians, 1975.
Lebron James and the Miami heat wore hoodies to	memorialize Trayvon Martin, 2012.
Los Angeles Clippers basketball team protested team owner	Donald Sterling's racist remarks in 2014.
The challenges created by racial and ethnic diversity are among the most important ones that we face as we	live, work, and play together in the twenty first century.
Race	a population of people who are believed to be naturally or biologically distinct from other populations.
Race depends on a classification system through which meanings are given to	particular physical traits.
Ethnicity	a cultural heritage that people use to identify a particular population.
Ethnic population is a	category of people regarded as socially distinct because they share a way of life, a collective history and a sense of themselves as a people.
Ethnic minority is a	socially identified population that suffers disadvantages due to systematic discrimination and has a strong sense of social togetherness based on shared experiences of past and current discrimination.
Racial classification systems were developed as	white Europeans explored and colonized the globe and found that there were physical differences between people.
Racial classification systems were used to justify	colonization, conversion, and even slavery and genocide.
According to racial classification systems white skin was the standard and dark skin was associated with	intellectual inferiority and slowed development.
Racial ideology is	interrelated ideas and beliefs that are widely used to classify human beings in categories assumed to be biological and related to attributes such as intelligence, temperament, and physical abilities
Racial ideology has been used by white people to	give themselves moral permission to colonize and exploit dark skinned people without guilt, define dark skinned people as the white man's burden in need of moral salvation and civilizing.
Between the 17th and 20th centuries a person's humanity and moral worth came to be associated with skin color because	white americans needed justification for political expansion, white americans sought to control blacks after the abolition of slavery, scientists claimed to have proof of the natural inferiority of colored and the natural superiority of white people.
In the US whiteness became the foundation for an	American identity and a prerequisite for citizenship.
Racism	attitudes, actions, and policies based on the belief that people in one racial category are inherently superior to people in one or more other categories.
Genocide	the systematic destruction of an identifiable population.
Stereotypes	generalizations used to define and judge all individuals who are classified in a particular racial category.
Research shows that race is not a valid biological concept because	external traits are not linked with patterns of internal differences.
Race is a social construction that is based on	social definitions and the meanings that people give to physical traits.
Racial classification systems vary by	culture and over time, and they are based on arbitrary distinctions related to continuous physical traits.
Continuous traits are	skin color, height, brain size, nose width, leg length, leg length ratio, number of fast twitch muscle fibers, etc.
Discrete traits are	blood type, sickle cell trait, etc.
Racial category lines are drawn on the basis of	continuous traits. Therefore, they can be drawn anywhere and everywhere on the continuum. Our decisions are social decisions, not decisions based on biology.
Searching for jumping genes in black bodies is based on an oversimplified ideas about genes and how they work. It mistakenly assumes that	jumping is a simple physical activity related to a single gene or interrelated set of genes. It ignores that jumping is a cultural performance as well as a physical act.
There is no evidence showing that skin color is related to	physical traits that are essential for athletic excellence across sports or in any particular sport.
There are genetic differences between	individuals.
Genetic characteristics are related to	athletic excellence.
One gene probably cannot account for success across a	range of different sports.
Skin color genes and physical performance genes are not	systematically connected.
Physical development and the expression of skills in sports are related to	cultural definitions of skin color and race.
Cultural ideas about skin color and race influence the interpretation of and meaning given to the	movement and achievements of athletes.
Social origins of athletic excellence include a cultural emphasis on	achievement in activities that have special cultural meaning, resources to support widespread participation among young people, opportunities to gain rewards through success and access to those who can teach tactics and strategies.
Achievements of white athletes are based on	character, culture, and organization.
Achievements of black athletes are based on	biology, natural abilities, and genetic heritage.
The sense of biological and cultural destiny combined with motivation and opportunities to develop certain sport skills leads some black males especially those with certain physical characteristics to be	outstanding athletes in certain sports.
Racial ideology, discrimination and sport opportunities lead to beliefs about biological and cultural destiny which lead to	motivation to develop skills, which leads to outstanding achievements in sports.
Black male students have a difficult time shaking the	athlete identity labels that are based on prevailing racial ideology in the US. Many people don't see an honor student when they see a black male.
Young people from all racial backgrounds may make choices influenced by	racial ideology. They may think in terms of black sports and white sports.
In everyday life, racial ideology is integrally linked to	ideas about gender and social class. The black male body has been socially constructed in connection with white fears and fascination.
Racial ideology influences some not all white people to	avoid sports in which black people have a record of excellence.
In euro american racial history there have been strong fears of the physical power and prowess of	oppressed black men, powerful anxieties about the sexual appetites, attributes, and capabilities of angry black men, and deep fascination with the movement of the black body.
The black male body became a valuable entertainment commodity and black people saw it as	a mobility asset.
In the US black female athletes must	closely monitor their presentation of self so they are not perceived by whites as "too black", tone down their toughness to appear amicable and nonthreatening.
In the US the body of the black female has been sexualized and viewed as a source of	nurturance, has lead to stereotypes of black women as oversexed on one hand, and as aunt jemima on the other hand. These stereotypers continue to be expressed in the 21st century.
When pro tennis player Caroline Wozniacki mimicked Serena Williams she revived a global legacy of	racist beliefs about black female sexuality.
Historical consequences of racial ideology for African Americans in sports include desegregation of revenue producing sports, continued racial exclusion in	social sports, position stacking in team sports, radicalized interpretations of achievements, management barriers for blacks, skewed distribution of African Americans in US colleges and universities.
Prior to the 1950s sports in the US were	racially segregated.
African Americans participate in a very	limited range of sports.
African Americans are clearly	underrepresented in most sports. They're not taking over sports as some whites continue to believe.
In the face of racial segregation, blacks could earn money by turning sports into entertainment that reaffirmed	the racist stereotypes of whites. There was cultural space for balcks to entertain whites as clowns, but not to play sports with whites.
African Americans tolerated these stereotypes because they	opened some doors for them to play sports and make some money in the process.
The original Harlem Globetrotters were a classic example of this as were the	Zulu Cannibal Giants.
Native americans comprise dozens of	diverse cultural groups.
Traditional native american sports combine	physical activities with ritual and ceremony.
Native Americans often fear losing their	culture when playing euro-american sports.
Widely accepted racial and ethnic stereotypes about native americans have	restricted their access to sport participation.
Using stereotypes of native americans as a basis for	team names, logos, and mascots is a form of bigotry and identity theft, regardless of the intentions of those who do it.
Participation patterns by Latinos vary by national origin, heritage, and generation, experiences include	bridging cultural gaps and dealing with stereotypes related to Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans.
Latin Americans working as athletes in the US include a long history of	Latino players in US sports, 40% of players under contract in MLB are latinos, cultural and social adjustment problems are numerous.
Undocumented workers and family members and sport participation has	little knowledge, and access to information is scarce. Sports are used strategically to share information with other workers about thow to survive in the US.
Latinas today can now see athletes who look like them but we know little about	their experiences in sports and how they integrate sports into their lives.
Cultural heritage and histories of asian pacific americans are	diverse. Heritage traced to at least 18 nations and dozens of cultures.
The sport participation patterns of APAs vary with	their immigration histories. People from Asia are seen by many Americans as "foreign" even if they are natural born US citizens in families that have been in the US for many generations.
APAs have long histories of sport	participation in US. Some have used sports to challenge and discredit stereotypes, some to gain acceptance in schools. Tensions may occur if APAs don't embrace traditional US sports.
Stereotypes about Chinese people were disrupted by	Jeremy Lin as he excelled in the NBA.
Research on global soccer has found three primary expressions of racism	direct, indirect, and racism on the field.
Direct racism	fans insulting players with bigoted slurs.
Indirect racism	chants or banners promoting bigoted political agendas.
Racism on the field	negative comments made by and to athletes, coaches, or referees.
Racism has become a major problem in sports worldwide as global migration patterns bring	diverse peoples into contact with each other.
As European professional soccer has become more racially diverse, expressions of racism have become more	common. Today there are programs designed to discourage racism, success has been spotty.
As England tries to deal with expressions of racism and homophobia in sports some venues have	policies that formally ban them.
Making sports inclusive is a	major challenge, regardless of nation and culture.
Race and ethnicity remain significant in	sports today.
Today's challenges are not the ones faced in	the past.
Racial and ethnic issues don't disappear when	desegregation occurs.
The challenge of dealing with intergroup relations never disappears it only	changes in terms of the issues that must be confronted and resolved.
Racial and ethnic diversity brings potential	vitality and creativity to sports.
There are three major challenges related to racial and ethnic relations in sports today eliminating racial and ethnic	exclusion in sport participation, dealing with and managing racial and ethnic diversity by creating an inclusive culture on sport teams and in sport organizations and integrating positions of power in sport organizations.
Certain sports have built in incentives for	eliminating racial segregation.
Team owners and management benefit when they	don't exclude talented players.
Racial ideologies and stereotypes are easy to suspend in the face of	precise, objective performance data.
All team members benefit from the achievements of	teammates, regardless of their race or ethnicity.
Superior performance by a player does not mean he or she will be	promoted to management.
Team members are not required to socialize and be friends	off the field to win games.
Ethnic minority athletes always remain under the control of	white team owners and management.
Incentives offset the threats often perceived by dominant group members when	desegregation occurs, sports without these incentives remain segregated to some degree.
Racial and ethnic diversity creates management challenges related to	social dynamics on teams, social dynamics among spectators, and marketing athletes, teams, and leagues.
The global recruitment of players insures that	diversity issues will always exist in sports.
The films the jackie robinson story and 42-the true tory of an american legend showed that Branch Rickey the Dodgers manger and the team faced new	challenges after desegregation.
Jackie Robinson and others who have broken barriers in sports have been closely watched and judged by	those who are privileged by prevailing definitions of skin color, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, and disability.
Barrier breakers are under	constant surveillance by those waiting to find a reason to attack them.
People seldom share power	voluntarily.
Even when sport participation is racially and ethnically mixed, power in sports is	not readily shared.
The movement of minorities into coaching and administrative positions has been	very slow.
Social and legal pressures are still needed before	power is fully shared.
Most sport organizations are white	dominated, identified, and centered.
Success by ethnic minorities requires living to standards set by whites and acting in ways that	whites define as appropriate. To defy these standards is to risk being defined as deviant, arrogant, undisciplined.
Sports may bring people together, but this does not occur	automatically, nor does it make race and ethnicity irrelevant in sports.
Bringing people together doesn't lead to positive outcomes without	strategies based on an awareness of racial and ethnic relations.
As social conditions change so do	ideas and beliefs about race and the bodies of athletes.
Most top boxers today are	latino, eastern european, and south asian.
African's are widely recruited by previously	all white men's soccer clubs in Europe.
White Americans are being replaced by young women from	Russia at the top levels of professional tennis and from Korea in golf.
Forty five percent of players on MLB teams are	latin american and asian.
Twenty eight percent of NBA players were	born outside the US.
Ideas about race and bodies vary over	time and with changing circumstances.
Change requires regular and direct	confrontation of racial and ethnic issues by people in positions of power.
Change requires a new vocabulary for	dealing with new forms of racial and ethnic diversity in our lives.
Change requires training sessions for management and players dealing with	practical problems and issues, not just feelings.
Resources in the form of money and power influence what	sports you play and when, where, and how you play them.
Social class is	categories of people who share an economic position in society based on a combination of their income, wealth, education, occupation and social connections.
Social stratification is	structured oems of economic inequalities that are part of the organization of everyday life. These inequalities influence life chances.
Life chances are	similar odds for achieving economic success and power in society. They vary from one social class to another in the social stratification system.
Class relations are	the ways that social class is incorporated into the organization of our everyday lives.
Social class differences affect most pats of	people lives in the US.
Class ideology is	interrelated ideas and beliefs that people use to understand economic inequalities, identify their class position, and evaluate the impact of economic inequalities on the organization of social worlds.
American dream	a hopeful vision of boundless opportunities for individuals to succeed economically and live a happy life based on consumption
Belief in meritocracy is a	form of social organization in which rewards go to people who earn them due to their abilities and qualifications.
Major beliefs that constitute class ideology in the US are	the belief in the american dream, and the belief that the US is a meritocracy.
Exclusive sport clubs are widely perceived as a	legitimate privilege of people in the upper class. This is an outcome of the belief in meritocracy.
The meaning, organization and purpose of sports are	heavily influenced by money and economic power.
Class relations in the US are based on an ideology in which economic success is equated with	individual ability, worth, and character. Competitive power and performance sports reaffirm this ideology.
Sport is frequently a site where	the wealthy reaffirm their status and privilege.
The most powerful people in sports are	white men who control the resources that sponsor sports and represent sports in the media.
The most visible sports around the world revolve around the	meanings and orientations given priority by people with wealth and power.
Sports Illustrated's 50 most powerful people in sports ranks people on their	power in and over sports.
Rankings change each year, but they consistently show that	power is based in organizations and rests in the hands of the white men who control them.
Athletes and coaches have	little or no power to control the organization of sports.
White men hold nearly 100 percent of the major power positions in	elite sports today.
Sports and other forms of exciting entertainment are	cultural vehicles for establishing ideological outposts in the minds of people.
These outposts relay into the	popular consciousness messages that reaffirm a class ideology that legitimizes current forms of class inequality in society.
Sports are valuable cultural vehicles for	developing ideological outposts in the minds of people around the world.
Transitional corporations spend billions of dollars to be	primary providers of popular pleasure and entertainment.
Corporate spokespersons use sports to deliver other messages about	what should be important in people's lives.
Social class and class relations influence	who plays sports, who watches sports, who consumes information about sports, and the information that is available.
Generally, the higher the social class the greater the	involvement and influence.
Sport participation occurs in the	context of class related lifestyles.
Sport venues are sites for transferring public money to	wealthy individuals and private corporations.
Using sales taxes to build facilities controlled by	team owners and private corporations
Funding construction with	tax exempt bonds purchased by wealthy investors.
Discounting property tax rates for	sport facilities and development around stadiums.
Granting tax deductions for tickets purchased for	business purposes, nearly all luxury box and club seats are purchased this way.
Fans often are segregated by	social class in stadiums. People in luxury suites don't want unity and they pay to avoid it.
Yes a stadium and team create jobs but at a price that	far exceeds other forms of job creation.
A large department store or a university provides many	more jobs than a pro sport team and stadium.
Most sport stadium jobs are	seasonal and low paid.
Jobs from other areas may move to	new businesses around the stadium, but the net increase in jobs is small.
Girls and women in low income households often face the	greatest constraints to sport participation.
Boys and girls from higher income families seldom face	constraints that interfere with participation in after school and summer programs, camps, and leagues.
Gender related factors have a greater impact on	sport participation patterns in lower income households.
Ideas about sports and masculinity vary by	social class.
Boys from lower income backgrounds often see sport participation as a	means of obtaining respect.
Early, exclusive commitments to a single sport are more likely among	boys from lower income backgrounds, this is a reflection of life chances.
The recession in 2007-2009 hit black and Latino families especially	hard, cutting their average wealth by 53 percent and 66 percent respectively. This has a dramatic impact on discretionary spending and makes it very difficult to pay for the sport participation of any family members.
Research shows that for some low income minority men	boxing is an alternative to the violence of the streets.
Boxing is a refuge from the	violence, hopelessness, and indignity created by racism and poverty.
Many of these men know that they would not be boxers if	other opportunities existed for them.
US boxers since the 1880s have been Irish, Italian, Jews, African Americans, and Latinos as each ethnic group migrated to the US and	was at the bottom of the socio-economic ladder.
Cuts in publicly funded sport programs disproportionately affect people with	few economic resources.
Tickets to pro sports events are too	expensive for many people today. Ticket prices increase about 30% after new facilities are constructed
Ticket prices are driven up by coporations that can deduct from their income taxes a portion of ticket costs. Also wealthy people are willing to pay	high prices so they can separate themselves from those with lower status. Unless you are relatively wealthy, you sit close to the rafters.
People in the US have on average 60 dollars a day to life in	39 less developed nations, people have 58 cents per day to live. Nearly 50% of the world's population live on less than 2 dollars a day
Sports and sport participation is a	luxury for over half the world's population.
Wealthy nations are the	medal winners at the Olympic Games.
Training for elite competition is now so expensive that about 80 percent of the global population has	no realistic chance of winning a medal, unless they find a way to train in the US or another wealthy nation. This pattern is even more pronounced in the Paralympics.
Career opportunities are limited and for athletes they are	short term.
Opportunities for women are growing but	remain limited.
Opportunities for African Americans and other ethnic	minorities are growing but remain limited.
Most pro athletes make less than	teachers in the US.
Careers as pro athletes for women have existed primarily	in tennis and golf.
Other job opportunities in sports remain	limited by traditional gender ideology.
There are 28 times more African Americans working as doctors, lawyers, and college teachers than there are	black athletes in top level professional sports.
Ethnic minority athletes have faced entry and retention	barriers in the past.
Employment barriers for ethnic minorities remain in many sports, especially	in off the field positions of power in sport organizations.
Members of ethnic minorities are more likely than whites to be	defined as unqualified for off the field jobs.
Job candidates most likely to be hired have values and orientations matching	those of people in positions of power.
The values and orientations of ethnic minorities are	seldom part of the culture of sport organizations.
Playing sports may be related to success when it enables people to complete degrees and gain knowledge about the world apart from sports, increases	support from others who foster overall development, not just sport development, provides opportunities to develop social networks reaching beyond sports, provides material resources and guidance on how to use them, does not lead to serious injury.
Changes that have increased the likelihood of athlete's career success include increased salaries for many professional athletes, increased visibility and name recognition that has value as a form of social capitol and increased	awareness among athletes that resources must be managed carefully to maximize opportunities in the future.
Major challenges faced by retiring athletes include reconstructing identities in terms of	activities, abilities, and relationships unrelated to sport participation
Major challenges faced by retiring athletes include renegotiating relationships with others os as to	gain feedback and support for new identities.
The perceived number of full athletic scholarships is	greatly exaggerated. Athletic scholarships are awarded year to year, but athletes are obligated for four years.
Class and race/ethnicity is related to	who receives scholarships in what sports.
Many students with athletic scholarships would	attend college without such aid.
Ableist ideology	interrelated ideas and beliefs that are widely used to identify people as physically or intellectually disabled, to justify treating them as inferior, and to organize social worlds and physical spaces without taking them into account.
Ableist ideology rejects physical and intellectual variation as	natural and normal among humans and ignores that meanings given to particular abilities change over time and from one situation to another.
Disability is related to real and often	inconvenient impairments, but it has a central social dimension to it, in a sense we all create it.
Ageism	an evaluative perspective that favors one age group usually younger people over others and justifies discrimination against particular age groups that are assumed to be incapable of full participation in mainstream activities.
Ableism	an evaluative perspective in which the label of disability is a mark of inferiority, meaning that a person is assumed to be incapable of full participation in mainstream activities.
Impairment is a	physical, sensory, or intellectual condition that potentially limits a person's full participation in social and/or physical environments.
Disability is when an	official definition makes it so, or when the social and physical environment contain barriers that convert impairments into functional limitations.
For people with a physical or intellectual impairment handicapped is a negative term that infers	being held back, weighed down, and marked as inferior due to perceived impairments.
The medical model locates disability in the person with an impairment. This implies that	an impairment is a personal defect that requires a medical or technological fix to make the person normal.
The social model locates disability in a system of	social oppression where accommodations are seen as extras rather than taken for granted parts of the designed environment.
Because people with certain impairments are segregated in many societies they often are defined as	others and seen as strange or fearsome by people in mainstream social worlds.
Visible impaiments in the empire of the normal require	polite responses as residents of the empire repeatedly ask what happened to you?
Power and performance sports are given high priority in	the empire of the normal. This often isolates athletes with impairments in special programs where they receive special support and where they will not inconvenience residents of the empire or force them to question their definitions of normal.
The bodies of athletes with disabilities challenge expectations in the Empire of the Normal. Athletes with a disability are expected to have	stories that explain why my body is different from your body. This influences their socialization experiences and their identities as athletes.
As the athletes disrupt and challenge stereotypes about disabilities, the media coverage converts them into	others, such as the heroic super crip and the courageous victim.
Women with disabilities are disadvantaged in a culture where	femininity and heterosexual attractiveness are equated.
Men with disabilities are disadvantaged in a culture where	manhood is constructed through narratives of conquest and domination.
Some people with disabilities fear being identified as	subnormal and therefore avoid playing sports.
Sports are often at the center of	inclusion battles involving people with impairments because they are highly visible and culturally valued, they are believed to be unique socializing activities, and the resources go primarily to those with elite skills or potential.
Americans with Disability Act (ADA)	requires that all youth sport programs be open to the public and cannot exclude children.
Most organized youth sports today are not organized to make children with disabilities feel	welcome or valued.

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