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Stack #172280
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Standardized tests are often used for? | entry or placemet in specific programs and to diagnose learning problems or strengths |
| Where does the school accountability movement come from? | The public loss of confidence in education |
| Reliability- | relates to the accuracy with which skills & knowledge are measured |
| Valid reasons for assessing students- | inform decision makers about student behaviors, monitor student progress toward a goal, screen students for specific purposes |
| Why testing accommodations for students with disabilities are important- | help ensure that the results will be an accurate indication of student ability, enable most students to be tested, enable testing practices to be deemed fair to all students |
| Most critical problem that can result from standardized achievement test accommodation- | accommodation changes the nature of the measurement |
| Fair & ethical testing procedures- | research scores from individual minority populations to determine whether scores are comparable, provide non-English-speaking students the opportunity to take mathematics & science exams in their native language, grade essays without regard for who wrote |
| Misuses of state-mandated standardized achievement test scores- | assign students to remedial or accelerated tracks based solely on their scores, compute glass grades using standardized test scores, compare scores on the exam to in-class quizzes |
| Criterion-Referenced Tests- | assessments that rate how thoroughly students have mastered specific skills or areas of knowledge |
| Norm-Referenced Tests- | assessments that compare the performance of one student against the performance of others |
| Common benefit of standardized achievement tests- | scores are comparable across populations |
| Formative Assessment- | evaluations designed to determine whether additional instruction is needed |
| Formative Assessment- | continuous feedback to the teacher, test smaller units, monitor progress, informal |
| Summative Assessment- | final evaluations of students’ achievement of an objective |
| Summative Assessment- | comprehensive measure of achievement |
| Selected Response- | test items in which respondents can select from one or more possible answers, without requiring the scorer to interpret their response |
| Selected Response- | limited to presented options, common on standardized achievement tests |
| Constructed Response- | requires student to supply rather than to select the answer |
| Constructed response- | difficulty scoring, requires students to support an argument with multiple lines of reasoning, depends on writing ability |
| Primary purpose of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Exam(WRM)- | achievement |
| Eraut’s major criticism of using reflection | sometimes decision need to be made quickly, and there is not time for reflection |
| Reflectivity- | tendency to analyze oneself & one’s own thoughts |
| Reflectivity- | help individuals self-correct behaviors and ideas, empower learners to take ownership of ideas |
| Foreclosure- | an adolescent’s premature establishment of an identity based on parental choices, not on his or her own |
| Identity Diffusion- | inability to develop a clear direction or sense of self; adolescent has few commitments to goals and values, and seems apathetic about finding an identity; if an identity crisis has been experienced, it has not been resolved |
| Moratorium- | adolescent experiments with goals and values by abandoning some of those set by parents and society; no definite commitments have been made to occupations or ideologies; the adolescent is in the midst of an identity crisis |
| Identity Achievement- | adolescent establishes an identity in which clear decisions about occupations and ideologies have been consciously made |
| Birth – Age 2- | body quadruples in weight and the brain triples in weight, neurons branch & grow into dense connective networks between the brain & the rest of the body |
| Ages 2 – 6- | child’s body grows much more slowly relative to other periods of life; the brain continues to develop fast than any other part of the body, up to 90% of its adult weight; |
| Ages 7 – 11- | growth that occurs during these years usually proceeds from the extremities to the torso & may be uneven, the child's body grows much more slowly relative to other periods of life. |
| Ages 12 – 18- | increased in hormonal levels occur, resulting in a growth spurt, males generally become taller than females and develop deeper voices and characteristic patterns of facial and body hair; increased strength and heart and lung capacity give the child endura |
| Description of the way a child goes up & down steps at the end of early childhood- | takes coordinated, even steps, steps once on each step, alternating feet |
| When most girls begin their growth spurt | most girls begin their growth spurt by the start of 5th grade |
| Puberty in girls | almost all girls begin menstruation by age 13, most girls reach their adult stature by age 16 |
| General Principles of Social Learning Theory | people can learn by observing the behaviors of others & the outcomes of those behaviors, learning can occur without a change in behavior, the consequences of behavior play a role in learning, cognition (to perceive or understand) plays a role in learning |
| Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory | students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people, describing the consequences of behaviors can effectively increase appropriate behaviors & decrease inappropriate ones |
| Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory | modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors, teachers & parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they don’t model inappropriate ones |
| Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory | teachers should expose students to a variety of other models, students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks |
| Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory | teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic accomplishments, self-regulation techniques provide effective methods for improving behavior |
| Attachment Theory | a close emotional relationship between two persons characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity; attachments serve the purpose of keeping the child & primary caregiver physically and emotionally close |
| Psychoanalytic Theory | individual that are often unaware of many of the factors that determine their emotions and behaviors; these unconscious factors may create unhappiness, sometimes in the form of recognizable symptoms and at other times as troubling personality traits, diff |
| Ethology | the study of animal behavior with emphasis on the behavioral patterns that occur in natural environments; animals are born with a set of fixed action patterns such as imprinting |
| Typical of 5 year olds | have a sense of pride in their accomplishments & enjoy demonstrating their achievements |
| Learning Disability | has difficulty with oral language (e.g., listening, speaking, and understanding); reading (e.g., decoding, comprehension); written language (e.g., spelling, written expression); mathematics (e.g., computation, problem solving); also may have difficulties |
| Emotional or Behavioral Disorder | a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time & to a marked degree that adversely affects educational performance |
| Emotional or Behavioral Disorders | inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors (academically performing below grade level), inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers & teachers |
| Emotional or Behavioral Disorder | inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances, a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression, a tendency to develop physical symptoms of fears associated with personal or school problems |
| Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder | refers to a pattern of ongoing, long-standing (chronic) behavior disorders that have 3 core symptoms:Inattention, Hyperactivity, and impulsivity |
| Inattention | fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes, difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities |
| Inattention | does not seem to listen when spoken to directly, does not follow through on instructions & fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (not due to oppositional behavior or failure to understand instructions) |
| Inattention | has difficulty organizing tasks & activities, avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort |
| Inattention | loses things necessary for tasks or activities, easily distracted by extraneous stimuli, forgetful in daily activities |
| Hyperactivity | fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat, leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected |
| Hyperactivity | runs about or climbs excessively in situation in which it is inappropriate, has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly, talks excessively |
| Impulsivity | blurts out answers before questions have been completed, has difficulty awaiting turn, interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games) |
| Speech and Language Disorder | refers to problems in communication and related areas such as oral motor function; inability to understand or use language or use the oral-motor mechanism for functional speech and feeding; |
| Speech Disorders | difficulties producing speech sounds or problems with voice quality; interruption in the flow of rhythm of speech (e.g., stuttering) |
| Language Disorders | an impairment in the ability to understand and/or use words in context, both verbally and nonverbally; improper use of words and their meanings, inability to express ideas, inappropriate grammatical patterns, reduced vocabulary and inability to follow dir |
| Legally Blind | a person is considered legally blind when the best corrected visual acuity is 20/200, or the person’s visual field is 20 degrees or less; not all blind persons have absolutely no sight; most blind persons have some remaining vision; considered blind when |
| Visually Impaired | terms partially sighted, low vision, legally blind, and totally blind are used in the educational context to describe students with visual impairments |
| Partially Sighted | indicates some type of visual problem has resulted in a need for special education |
| Low Vision | refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily limited to distance vision; applies to all individuals with sight who are unable to read the newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even with the aid of eyeglasses or contact lens; they use a combinat |
| Legally Blind | indicates that a person has less than 20/200 vision in the better eye or a very limited field of vision (20 degrees at its widest point) |
| Intellectual Disability | presence of sub-average general intellectual functioning associated with or resulting in impairments in adaptive behavior; occurs before age of 18 |
| Intellectual Disability | down syndrome, autism, developmental disability, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder (manic depression), anorexia, post traumatic stress disorder, print disability, hearing impairment, physical disability |
| Erik Erickson Foreclosure | Made an identity commitment, but not explored identity. |
| Erik Erickson Identity diffusion | Not explored identity, not made a commitment. |
| Erik Erickson Identity deferment | NA |
| Erik Erickson moratorium | Explored identity, but not made a commitment. |
| John Joseph Hughes | Wanted public funding in 1840s for Catholic schools. Helped the secularization of American public schools. |
| Piaget's Theory of Moral Development | Cognitive stuctures/abilities develop first |
| Perennialism | Belief that nature and human nature is constant. Most closely related to the Idealism and Realism schools of traditional philosophy. |
| Perennialism | Educational Implications |
| Perennialism | Educational Goals |
| Perennialism | Curriculum |
| Perennialism | Teacher's Role |
| Perennialism | Teaching Methods |
| Perennialism | Learning Environment |
| Perennialism | Assessment |
| Essentialism | belief that a critical core of information exists that all people should possess. Most closely related to the Idealism and Realism schools of philosophy. |
| Essentialism | Educational Implications |
| Essentialism | Educational Goals |
| Essentialism | Curriculum |
| Essentialism | Teacher's Role |
| Essentialism | Teaching Methods |
| Essentialism | Learning Environment |
| Essentialism | Assessment |
| Progressivism | Emphasizes curriculum that focuses on real-world problem solving and individual development. Most closely related to the Pragmatism school of philosophy |
| Progressivism | Educational Implications |
| Progressivism | Educational Goals |
| Progressivism | Curriculum |
| Progressivism | Teacher's Role |
| Progressivism | Teaching Methods |
| Progressivism | Learning Environment |
| Progressivism | Assessment |
| Postmodernism | Contends that many societal institutions, including schools, are used by those in power to control/marginalize those who lack power = education should focus on reversing this. |
| Postmodernism | Educational Implications |
| Postmodernism | Educational Goals |
| Postmodernism | Curriculum |
| Postmodernism | Teacher's Role |
| Postmodernism | Teaching Methods |
| Postmodernism | Learning Environment |
| Postmodernism | Assessment |
| In loco parentis | "in the place of parents" |
| Works Progress Administration (WPA) | 1935 |
| The Servicemen's Readjustment Act (G.I. Bill) | 1944 |
| Life Adjustment Movement | 1950s |
| Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka | 1954 |
| National Defense Act (NDEA) | 1958 |
| manpower Development and Training Act | 1962 |
| Job Corps Established | 1964 |
| Project Head Start | 1964 |
| Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) | 1965 |
| San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez | 1973 |
| "A Nation at Risk" | 1983 |
| Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142) | 1975 |
| Gifted and Talented Act | 1978 |
| Americans with Disabilities Act | 1990 |
| Individuals with Disabilities Act | 1990 |
| Bilingual Education Act of 1968 (Title VII of ESEA) | provided schools with federal funds to establish educational programs for students w/ limited English |
| New England Colonies | demographics |
| New England Colonies | livelihood |
| New England Colonies | educational needs |
| Middle Colonies (NY, NJ, Del., Penn.) | demographics |
| Middle Colonies | religion |
| Middle Colonies | Education |
| Southern Colonies (MD, Virginia, NC, SC, GA) | livelihood |
| Southern Colonies | Education |
| Southern Colonies | forms of education |
| First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution | Establishment Clause |
| First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution | Free Exercise Clause |
| Dartmouth College Case | 1819 |
| Common School Movement | History |
| Common School Movement | Contributions to Education |
| Compulsory Education Act of 1852 (Mass.) | mandatory school attendance for children, ages 8 |
| Kalamazoo Case | 1875 |
| Chautauqua (NY) Institute | 1874 |
| George Counts | Concerned with the impact that SES and culture have on students' ability to learn; leader in the Progressive movement. |
| Noah Webster | Father of American Scholarship in Education |
| Benjamin Rush | Founding father; believed the security of the republic lay in proper education. |
| Know Nothing Party | Goal was to prevent Catholic schools from receiving state and tax-payer funding for schools and ensuring that only the Protestant bible was used in schools. |
| Bernard Bailyn | The idea of "public education" was created by historians who were "educational missionaries." |
| Lloyd P. Jorgensen | The fundamental assumption of the common school movement is "the public school would be an agent of moral/social redemption that resulted from nonsectarian religious instruction"; exposed evils associated with this movement. |
| Learning Disability (LD) | Disorder in one or more basic psychological processes involved in understanding/using spoken and/or written language = imperfect ability to listen, think, read, write, spell, or do math calculations. |
| Characteristics of LD (may not have all) | Normal intelligence; discrepancy between intelligence & performance; delays in achievement; poor motor coordination/spatial ability; perceptual anomalties; difficulty w/self-motivation; etc. |
| Working with students with learning disabilities | one-to-one tutoring for reading; early elementary = phonetic reading strategies; teach learning-to-learn skills (study skills, test-taking skills, etc.); give frequent feedback; break down large projects into smaller chunks; effective classroom management |
| Emotional and Behavior Disorders (EBD) | Serious/Persistent age-inappropriate behaviors resulting in social conflict, as well as problems in school and personal concept. Caused by make-up of the child, family disfunction/mistreatment, and/or underlying learning disability. |
| Characteristics of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders | Educational performance markedly and adversely affected over a period of time by: inability to build/maintain satisfacory interpersonal relationships; inappropriate types of behavior/feelings; general unhappiness; etc. |
| Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity (ADHD) | Difficulty in maintaining attention because of limited ability to concentrate accompanied by impulsive actions/hyperactive behavior = may have marked academic, behavior, and social problems stemming from inability to pay attention. |
| Working with students with ADHD | make sure student understands classroom rules/procedures; seat ADHD students in close proximity to you; understand student may not be able to control her behavior (not defiant); allow student opportunities to be active; use daily report cards |
| Autism | Developmental disability affecting social interactions, verbal/nonverbal communication, and educational performance. Generally evident before the age of 3 years. |
| Characteristics of Autism | (those a child exhibits depends on form/severity of autism) |
| Language Disorders | Impairment in student's ability to understand language (receptive language disorder) or to express ideas (expressive language disorder) in one's native language. If not result of physical problem/lack of experience, indicates a LD or mental retardation. |
| Speech Disorders | Oral articulation problems; occur most frequently among children in early elementary grades. |
| Working with students with speech disorders | display acceptance of student; never finish student's sentence or allow others to do so; don't put student in high-pressure situation in which they must respond quickly in a verbal manner. |
| Vision Impairments | Degree of uncorrectable inability to see 1 out of every 1,000 children are blind (vision = 20/200 or worse in the better eye) or visually imapired between 20/70 and 20/200 in the better eye). |
| Possible signs of vision loss | Child often tilts head/rubs eyes; has eyes that are red, inflamed, crusty, or water excessively; has trouble reading small print/can't discriminate letters; complains of dizziness/headaches after reading. |
| Asperger's Syndrome | Mild form of autism; may have concomitant learning disabilities and/or poor motor skills. |
| Characteristics of Asperger's Syndrome | easily memorize facts but has limited understanding of them; highly verbal with poor verbal/nonverbal communication skills; have a set way of doing things; experience extreme anxiety when routine is changed/expectations are not met; sensitive to sounds |
| Mental Retardation | Refers to substantial limitations in present functioning manifests before the age of 18. |
| Characteristics of Mental Retardation | sub-average intellectual functioning existing concurrently with related limitations in 2 or more of the following: communication; self-care; home living; social skills; community use; self-direction; health/safety; functional academics; leisure; work. |
| Down Syndrome Chromosomal | have 47 chromosomes instead of 46; TRISOMY 21 - the extra chromosome attaches to the 21st pair |
| Characteristics of Down Syndrome Mild to moderate mental retardation (some exceptions); may have heart defects, hearing loss, intestinal malformation, vision problems; increased risk for thyroid problems, leukemia, & Alzheimer disease | |
| Physical Characteristics of Down Syndrome | upper-slant eyes; short stature; flat nose; somewhat smaller ears/nose; enlarged, sometimes protruding tongue; short fingers; reduced muscle tones; single (Simean) crease across palm of the hand |
| Fragile X Syndrome | Chromosomal |
| Physical Characteristics of Fragile X Syndrome | long, narrow face; large ears' prominent forehead; large head circumference; testicles enlarged at puberty in males |
| Characteristics of Fragile X Syndrome | about 1/3 of affected girls have mild retardation/learning disability; may exhibit attention disorders, self-stimulatory behaviors, and speech/language problems |
| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) | estimated one in 500-700 babies born each year with some degree of alcohol-related damage/defect- alcohol can damage the central nervous system of fetus and brain damage is not uncommon. |
| Physical characteristics of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome | facial abnormalities; heart defects; low birth weight; motor dysfunctions |
| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome could result in . . . | mild to moderate mental retardation; attention disorders; behavioral problems |
| Fetal Alcohol Effect (FAE) | Less severe, more subtle forms of alcohol-related damage. |
| Orthopedic Impairments | Can be a congenital anomaly (e.g., club foot, etc.); an impairment caused by disease (e.g., polio, etc.); or impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputation, etc.) that adversely affects a student's educational performance. |
| Other Health Impairments | Student has limited strength, vitality, or alertness that results in limited alertness due to chronic/acute health problems (e.g., heart condition, diabetes, etc.) that can adversely affect student's academic performance |
| Deafness and Hard of Hearing | Hearing ability is of little use, even with the use of a hearing aid = cannot use hearing as primary source for accessing information. |
| Deaf-Blindness | Concomitant hearing and visual impairments which cause severe communication & other developmental/learning needs that student can't be educated in special education programs for students with hearing impairmenets/severe disabilities effectively. |
| Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) | An acquired injury to the brain caused by external physical force, resulting in a total/partialfunctional disability, psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a student's educational performance. |
| Psychosocial Crisis | Critical issue accompanying each of Erickson's 8 stages of development that a person must address as they pass through the stage. Failure to do so may keep person from being successful in later stages. |
| Trust v. Mistrust Stage | Birth to 18 mo.; Goal is to develop a basic sense of trust in others and a sense of one's own trustworthiness. failure to reach this goal results in a sense of mistrust in others/the world. |
| Autonomy v. Doubt and Shame Stage | 18 mo to 3 yrs.; Goal is to gain the ability to do things for oneself. failure to gain a sense of autonomy leads to a sense of powerlessness/incompetence. Child may begin to doubt her abilities & feel guilty when she tries to show some independence. |
| Initiative v. Guilt Stage | 3 to 6 yrs.; Goal is for child to explore her world so she can understand who she is within this context. Failure to reach this leads child to experience a sense of guilt about her desires to explore, which could limit her willingness to take chances. |
| Industry v. Inferiority Stage | Goal is for the child to be successful in whatever she does, as success brings a positive sense of self/one's abilities. failure creates a negative self-image. |
| Identity v. Role Confusion Stage | 12 to 18 yrs.; Goal is for teen to experiment with different roles, personality traits, etc. so as to develop a sense of who she is & what is personally important to her. failure to reach goal leads to a state of confusion which can interfere with life. |
| Intimacy v. Isolation Stage | Young Adulthood |
| Generativity v. Self-Absorption Stage | Middle Adulthood |
| Integrity v. Despair Stage | Late Adulthood |
| Marcia's Theory of Four Adolescent Identity Statuses | Status reflects the degree to which teens have made a firm commitment to religious and political values and future occupation. |
| Foreclosure Status | Teen's premature establishment of an identity based on parental choice instead of her own. A pseudo-identity that is too fixed/rigid to serve as a foundation for meeting life's challenges. |
| Identity Diffusion Status | Teen is not able to develop a clear direction or sense of self. May have experienced an identity crises but was unable to resolve it. |
| Moratorium Status | Teen experiments with occupational and ideological choices without a commitment to any. Teen is currently in the midst of an identity crisis. |
| Identity Achievement Status | teen has made her own conscious, autonomous, clear-cut decisions about an occupation and ideology that reflects who she is & a deep commitment to these decisions |
| Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development | (Cognitive) a developmental view of how moral reasoning evolves from a low to a high level. Argues that people with low moral level are unable to conceive acts of aggression as being immoral. |
| Moral Dilemmas | hypothetical situations that require a person to consider values of right and wrong. |
| Preconventional level of moral development | Rules are set down by others. |
| Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation | Physical consequences of an action is determine whether the action is "good" or "bad". |
| Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation | What is right is whatever satisfies one's own needs (occasionally the needs of others). Fairness/Reciprocity seen in terms of "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours". |
| Conventional Level | Person adopts rules and will sometimes subordinate her own needs to those of the group. Expectations of family, group, or nation are seen as valuable in their own right, regardless of immediate/obvious consequences. |
| Stage 3: Good-Boy/Good-Girl Orientation | Good behavior is what pleases/helps others and is approved of by them = can earn approval by being nice. |
| Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation | Right = doing your duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining social order for its own sake. |
| Post-Conventional Level | Person defines her own values in terms of the ethical principles she has elected to follow. |
| Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation | Right is defined in terms of individual rights/standards that have been agreed upon by society. Laws are not "frozen" but can be changed for society's good. |
| Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation | Right is defined by decisions of conscience according to ethical principles chosen by the person. The principles are abstract and not moral prescriptions. |
| Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences | Defines intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural settings." 8 intelligences, everyone has all 8, but in different proportions. You can strengthen your weaker areas. |
| Logical-Mathematical Intelligence | Sensitivity to and capacity to discern logical or number patterns; ability to handle long bits of reasoning. |
| Linguistic Intelligence | Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language. |
| Musical Intelligence | Ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expression |
| Naturalist Intelligence | Sensitivity to natural objects, like plants/animals; making fine sensory discrimination. |
| Visual-Spatial Intelligence | Capacity to accurately perceive the visual-spatial world; ability to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions. |
| Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence | Ability to control one's body movements and handle objects skillfully. |
| Interpersonal Intelligence | capacity to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of others. |
| Intrapersonal Intelligence | Ability to access one's own feelings/abilities to discriminate among them and draw on them to guide behavior; knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires and intelligences. |
| unconditioned stimulus | a stimulus that naturally evokes a particular responce |
| unconditioned responce | a behavior that is prompted automatically by stimuli |
| operant conditioning | uling consequences to control the occurenc of behavior |
| positive reinforcer | conequence given to strengthen behavior |
| negative reinforcer | release from an unpleasant situation to strengthen behavior |
| punishment | using unpleasant consequences to weaken a behavior |
| aversive stimulus | a consequence that a person tries to avoid or escape |
| shaping | using small steps combined with feedback to help learners reach goals |
| extinction | elemenating or decreasing a behaviour by removing reinforcement |
| culture | way of perceiving, believing evaluating and behaving |
| new age religion | movement is particularly concerned with spiritual exploration, holistic medicine, and mysticism, yet no rigid boundaries actually exist |
| Sikhism | The Guru Granth Sahib is a sacred text |
| Bahai Faith | Has three interlocking unities: the oneness of God (monotheism); the oneness of his prophets or messengers (religious perennialism); and the oneness of humanity (equality, globalism). |
| Copying computer programs | A teacher or school can make one backup copy of |
| Copying an article | Can make a copy for the class, but not personal use |
| Corpal Punishment | Deiceded by state law. Used in Mississippi and other places still! |
| Land Law of 1785 | Provided for the rectangular land survey of the Old Northwest. |
| accommodation | A term used by Piaget to describe how children change existing schemes by altering old ways of thinking or acting to fit new information in their environment; contrast with assimilation. |
| adaptation | One of two basic principles referred to by Piaget as invariant functions; the ability of all organisms to adapt their mental representations or behavior to fit environmental demands; contrast with organization. |
| animism | According to Piaget, children's inclination during the preoperational stage to attribute intentional states and human characteristics to inanimate objects. |
| assimilation | A term used by Piaget to describe how children mold new information to fit their existing schemes in order to better adapt to their environment; contrast with accommodation. |
| circular reactions | Piaget's term for patterns of behavior during the sensorimotor stage that are repeated over and over again as goal-directed actions. |
| centration | A developmental limitation present during the preoperational stage that makes young children focus their attention on only one aspect, usually the most salient, of a stimulus. |
| cognitive behavior modification | Meichenbaum's developmental program that helps children control and regulate their behavior; children are taught self-regulatory strategies to use as a verbal tool to inhibit impulses, control impulses and frustration, and promote reflection. |
| collective monologue | A characteristic conversational pattern of preschoolers who are unable to take the perspective of others and thus make little effort to modify their speech for their listener so that remarks to each other seem unrelated. |
| concrete operational stage | The period of life from 7 to 11 years old when, Piaget believed, children's thinking becomes less rigid, and they begin to use mental operations, such as classification, conservation, and seriation to think about events and objects in their environment. |
| conservation | A mental operation in the concrete operational stage that involves the understanding that an entity remains the same despite superficial changes in its form or physical appearance. |
| constructivist approach | An approach to learning which purports that children must construct their own understandings of the world in which they live. Teachers guide this process through focusing attention, posing questions, and stretching children's thinking; information must be |
| egocentrism | The tendency to think about, see, and understand the world from one's own perspective; an inability to see objects or situations from another's perspective. |
| egocentric speech | One of three stages of children's use of language identified by Vygotsky during which children begin to use speech to regulate their behavior and thinking through spoken aloud self-verbalizations; contrast with social speech and inner speech. |
| equilibration | Piaget's concept that refers to our innate tendency of self-regulation to keep our mental representations in balance by adjusting them to maintain organization and stability in our environment through the processes of accommodation and*assimilation. |
| formal operational stage | During the period of life between 11 and 12 years of age and onward during which, Piaget believed, children begin to apply formal rules of logic and to gain the ability to think abstractly and reflectively; thinking shifts from the real to the possible; s |
| guided participation | Rogoff's term used to describe transferring responsibility for a task from the skilled partner to the child in a mutual involvement between the child and the partner in a collective activity. Steps include choosing and structuring activities to fit the ch |
| hierarchial classification | A mental operation learned during the concrete operational stage that allows children to organize concepts and objects according to how they relate to one another in a building-block fashion. For example, all matter is composed of molecules and molecules |
| horizontal decalage | Piaget's term for children's inconsistency in thinking within a developmental stage; explains why, for instance, children do not learn conservation tasks about numbers and volume at the same time. |
| hypothetico-deductive thinking | A form of formal logic achieved during the formal operational stage Piaget identified as the ability to generate and test hypotheses in a logical and systematic matter. |
| internalization | Vygotsky's term for the process of constructing a mental representation of external physical actions or cognitive operations that first occur through social interaction. |
| Logico-mathematical knowledge | In Piaget's theory, the type of knowledge as the mental construction of relationships involved in the concrete operations of seriation, classification, and conservation, as well as various formal operations that emerge in adolescence. |
| matrix classification | In Piaget's theory, a concept achieved during the concrete operational stage that involves ordering items by two or more attributes, such as by both size and color. |
| metacognition | Knowledge about one's own thinking; involves an understanding of how memory works, what tasks require more cognitive effort, and what strategies facilitate learning; plays an important role in children's cognitive development during the middle childhood y |
| object permanence | Piaget's term for an infant's understanding during the sensorimotor stage that objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen or acted on. |
| physical knowledge | One of three types of knowledge as described by Piaget; knowing the attributes of objects such as their number, color, size, and shape; knowledge is acquired by acting on objects, experimenting, and observing reactions. |
| preoperational stage | The period of life from 2 to 7 years old when, Piaget believed, children demonstrate an increased ability to use symbols (gestures, words, numbers) to represent real objects in their environment. |
| propositional logic | A form of formal logic achieved during the formal operational stage that Piaget identified as the ability to draw a logical inference between two statements or premises in an "if-then" relationship. |
| realism | According to Piaget, children's inclination during the preoperational stage to confuse physical and psychological events in their attempts to develop theories of the internal world of the mind. |
| reflective abstraction | A concept which allows children to use information they already have acquired to form new knowledge that begins to emerge during the concrete operational stage but more characteristic of adolescent thinking. |
| representational thinking | A Piagetian concept that develops during the preoperational stage in which children gain the ability to use words to stand for real objects. |
| scheme | Also referred to as schema (pl. schemata) in some research areas; in Piaget's theory, the physical actions, mental operations, concepts, or theories people use to organize and acquire information about their world. |
| sensorimotor stage | The period of life from birth to 2 years old when children acquire what Piaget believed are the building blocks of symbolic thinking and human intelligence-schemes for two basic competencies, goal-directed behavior and object permanence. |
| seriation | In Piaget's theory, the understanding which develops during the concrete operational stage that involves the ability to order objects in a logical progression, such as from shortest to tallest; important for understanding the concepts of number, time, and |
| social knowledge | In Piaget's theory, this type of knowledge is derived in part through interactions with others.*Examples of this knowledge include mathematical words and signs, languages, musical notations, as well as social and moral conventions. |
| social speech | One of three stages of children's use of language identified by Vygotsky that is used primarily for communicative purposes in which thought and language have separate functions; contrast with egocentric speech and inner speech. |
| zone of proximal development | A concept in Vygotsky's theory regarding children's potential for intellectual growth rather than their actual level of development; the gap between what children can do on their own and what they can do with the assistance of others. |
| attention deficit hyperactive disorders | Behavior, diagnosed by a qualified professional, characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and unusual or excessive activity. |
| autism | A lifelong developmental disability that is neurologically based and affects the functioning of the brain; disabilities vary from mild to severe and include deficits in verbal and nonverbal communication, problems with reciprocal social interaction, and a |
| collaborative consultation | A teaching partnership that often accompanies cooperative or team teaching and is characterized by a consultative relationship in which both special and general educators discuss academic and social behavior problems in the general classroom to meet the n |
| communication disorders | Individuals characterized by specific impairments in speech and/or language |
| curriculum casualty | A school situation in which a child's needs clash with the learning and behavioral expectations of the educational system. |
| emotional or behavior disorders | Characterized by significantly different psychosocial development from one's peers, including hyperactivity, aggression, withdrawal, immaturity, and learning difficulties. |
| exceptionality | An umbrella term to describe all who receive special education-children with disabilities as well as children who are gifted. |
| external locus of control | A pattern of attributing events to factors outside one's control; a characteristic of children with learning disabilities; see locus of causality. |
| externalizing problems | The kinds of difficulties a majority of children with emotional and behavioral disorders experience, including argumentative, aggressive, antisocial, and destructive actions; contrast with internalizing problems. |
| giftedness | Individuals identified with a minimal IQ score of about 130 and above-average academic achievement, usually 2 years above grade level. |
| interindividual variation | Differences in developmental needs from one child to the next; see intraindividual variation. |
| internalizing problems | The kinds of problems some children with emotional and behavioral disorders experience, including depression, withdrawal, anxiety, and obsession; contrast with externalizing problems. |
| intraindividual variation | The unique pattern of strengths and needs related to each child's physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth; see interindividual variation. |
| mental retardation | Characterized by a lower than normal level of intelligence and developmental delays in specific adaptive behavior. |
| multimodal approach | A teaching method effective with children having an attention deficit disorder that combines educational support, psychological counseling, behavioral management at school and home, and medical management using a psychostimulant. |
| self-evaluation | A cognitive strategy that encourages children to record their performance and compare it to their target goals. |
| self-instruction | A cognitive strategy that encourages children to use internal speech to guide them through a task in a step-by-step manner; see inner speech. |
| specific learning disabilities . | A wide range and varying degrees of characteristics children exhibit that classify them as exceptional and require special accommodations for learning situations |
| Acceleration programs | Rapid promotion through advanced studies for students who are gifted or talented. |
| Accommodation | Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations. |
| Accountability | The degree to which people are held responsible for their task performances or decision outcomes. |
| Achievement batteries | Standardized tests that include several subtests designed to measure knowledge of particular subjects. |
| Achievement batteries | Standardized tests that include several subtests designed to measure knowledge of particular subjects. |
| Achievement motivation | The desire to experience success and to participate in activities in which success is dependent on personal effort and abilities. |
| Achievement tests | Standardized tests measuring how much students have learned in a given context. |
| Adaptation | The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment by means of assimilation. |
| Advance organizers | Activities and techniques that orient students to the material before reading or class presentations. |
| Allocated time | Time during which students have the opportunity to learn. |
| Analogies | Relating new concepts to information students already understand. |
| Antecedent stimulus | Event that comes before a behavior. |
| Applied behavior analysis | The application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior. |
| Aptitude test | A test designed to measure general abilities and to predict future performance. |
| Aptitude test | A test designed to measure general abilities and to predict future performance. |
| Aptitude-Treatment interaction | Interaction of individual differences in learning with particular teaching methods. |
| Assertive Discipline | Giving a clear, firm, unhostile response to student misbehavior. |
| Assessment | A measure of the degree to which instructional objectives have been attained. |
| Assimilation | Interpreting new experiences in relation to existing schemes. |
| Associative play | Much like parallel play but with increased levels of interaction in the form of sharing, turn-taking, and general interest in what others are doing. |
| Attention deficit disorder (ADD) | The inability to concentrate for long periods of time. |
| Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | A disorder characterized by difficulties maintaining attention because of a limited ability to concentrate; includes impulsive actions and hyperactive behavior. |
| Attention | The process of focusing on certain stimuli while screening others out. |
| Attribution theory | An explanation of motivation that focuses on how people explain the causes of their own successes and failures. |
| Authentic assessment | Measurement of important abilities using procedures that simulate the application of these abilities to real-life problems. |
| Authoritarian parents | Parents who strictly enforce their authority over their children. |
| Authoritative parents | Parents who mix firm guidance with respect and warmth toward their children. |
| Autism | A category of disability that significantly affects social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and educational performance. |
| Automaticity | Process by which thoroughly learned tasks can be performed with little mental effort. |
| Autonomous morality | stage at which a person understands that people make rules and that punishments are not automatic. |
| Aversive stimulus | A condition that a person tries to avoid or escape. |
| Backward planning | Planning instruction by first setting long-range goals, then setting unit objectives, and finally planning daily lessons. |
| Behavior content matrix | A chart that classifies lesson objectives according to cognitive level. |
| Behavior modification | Systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior. |
| Behavioral learning theory | Explanation of learning that emphasizes observable changes in behavior. |
| Between-class ability grouping | The practice of grouping students by ability level in separate classes within-class ability |
| Bilingual education | Instructional program for students who speak little or no English in which some instruction is provided in the native language. |
| Calling order | The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions asked during the course of a lesson. |
| Centration | Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or a situation. |
| Cerebral palsy | Disorder in ability to control movements caused by damage to the motor area of the brain |
| Choral response | A response to a question made by an entire class in unison. |
| Chronological age | The age of an individual in years. |
| Class inclusion | A skill learned during the concrete operational stage of cognitive development in which individuals can think simultaneously about a whole class of objects as well as relationships among its subordinate classes. |
| Classical conditioning | Associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to evoke a conditioned response. |
| Classroom management | Methods used to organize classtoom activities, instruction, physical structure, and other features to make effective use of time, to create a happy and productive learning environment, and to minimize behavior problmes and other disruptions. |
| Closure | The mental tendency to organize perceptions so they make sense. |
| Cognitive apprenticeship | The process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise in interaction with an expert, either an adult or an older or more advanced peer. |
| Cognitive behavior modification | Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction. |
| Cognitive development | Gradual, orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated. |
| Cognitive dissonance theory | An explanation of the discomfort people feel when new perceptions or behaviors clash with long-held beliefs. |
| Cognitive learning theory | Explanation of learning that focuses on mental processes. |
| Collaboration | Professionals working cooperatively to provide educational services. |
| Compensatory education | A program that is designed to prevent or remediate learning problems for students who are from lower socioeconomic status communities. |
| Compensatory preschool programs | Programs designed to prepare disadvantaged children for entry into kindergarten and first grade. |
| Completion items | Fill-in-the-blank items on tests. |
| Computer-based instruction(CBA) | Individualized instruction administered by a computer. |
| Concept | An abstract idea that is generalized from specific examples. |
| Concrete operational stage | Stage at which children develop skills of logical reasoning and conservation but can use theses kills only when dealing with familiar situations. |
| Conditioned stimulus | A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response. |
| Conduct disorders | Socioemotional and behavioral disorders indicated in individuals who, for example, are chronically disobedient or disruptive. |
| Connectionist models | Theories that knowledge is stored in the brain in a network of connections, not in systems of rules or individual bits of information. |
| Consequence | A condition that follows a behavior and affects the frequency of future behavior. |
| Conservation | The concept that certain properties of an object (such as weight) remain the same regardless of changes in other properties (such as length). |
| Construct validity | Degree to which test scores reflect what the test is intended to measure. |
| Constructivism | Theories of cognitive development that emphasize the active role of learners in building their own understanding of reality. |
| Constructivist theories of learning | State that learners must individually discover and transform complex information, checking new information against old rules and revising them when they no longer work. |
| Content validity | A measure of the match between the content of a test and the content of the instruction that preceded it. |
| Contingent praise | Praise that is effective because it refers directly to specific task performances. |
| Continuous theory of development | Theory based on the belief that human development progresses smoothly and gradually from infancy to adulthood. |
| Control Group | Group that receives no special treatment during an experiment. |
| Conventional level of morality | Stages 3 and 4 in Kohlberg's model of moral development, in which individuals make moral judgments in consideration of others. |
| Convulsive disorders | Forms of epilepsy. |
| Cooperative play | Play in which children join together to achieve a common goal. |
| Cooperative scripts | A study method in which students work in pairs and take turns orally summarizing sections of material to be learned. |
| Corrective instruction | Educational activities that are given to students who initially fail to master an objective; designed to increase the number of students who master educational objectives. |
| Correlational Study | Research into the relationships between variables as they naturally occur. |
| Criterion-referenced evaluations | Assessments that rate how thoroughly students have mastered specific skills or areas of knowledge. |
| Critical thinking | Ability to make rational decisions about what to do or what to believe. |
| Critical Thinking | Evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution. |
| Cross-age tutoring | Peer tutoring between an older and a younger student. |
| Cue | Signal as to what behavior(s) will be reinforced or punished. |
| Culture | The language, attitudes, ways of behaving, and other aspects of life that characterize a group of people. |
| Cutoff score | Score designated as the minimum necessary to demonstrate mastery of a subject. |
| Deficiency needs | Basic requirements for physical and psychological well-being as identified by Maslow. |
| Derived scores | Values computed from raw scores that relate students1 performances to those of a norming group; examples are percentiles and grade equivalents. |
| Descriptive Research | Study aimed at identifying and gathering detailed information about something of interest. |
| Developmentally appropriate education | Instruction felt to be adapted to the current developmental status of children (rather than their age alone). |
| Development | Orderly and lasting growth, adaptation, and change over the course of a lifetime. |
| Diagnostic tests | Tests of specific skills used to identify students1 needs and to guide instruction. |
| Direct instruction | Approach to teaching in which lessons are goal-oriented and structured by the teacher. |
| Disability | The inability to do something specific such as walk or hear. |
| Discipline | Methods used to prevent behavior problems from occurring or to respond to behavior problems so as to reduce their occurrence in the future. |
| Discontinuous theory of development | Theory based on the belief that human development occurs through a series of distinct stages. |
| Discovery learning | Teaching methods in which students are encouraged to discover principles for themselves. |
| Discrimination | Perception of and response to differences in stimuli. |
| Distractors | Incorrect responses offered as alternative answers to a multiple-choice question. |
| Distributed practice | Technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time. |
| Distributed practice | Technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time. |
| Drill and practice | Applications of microcomputers that provide students with practice of skills and knowledge. |
| Dual code theory of memory | Theory suggesting that information coded both visually and verbally is remembered better than information coded in only one of those two ways. |
| Early intervention programs | Compensatory preschool programs that target very young children at the greatest risk of school failure. |
| Early intervention | Programs that target at-risk infants and toddlers to prevent possible later need for remediation. |
| Educational Psychology | The study of learning and teaching. |
| Egocentric | Believing that everyone views the world as you do. |
| Elaboration | Connecting new material to information or ideas already in the learner's mind. |
| Emergent literacy | Knowledge and skills relating to reading that children usually develop from experience with books and other print media before the beginning of formal reading instruction in school. |
| Emotional and behavioral disorders | Category of exceptionality characterized by problems with learning, interpersonal relationships, and control of feelings and behavior. |
| Enactment | Learning process in which individuals physically carry out tasks. |
| Engaged time | Time students spend actually learning; same as time on-task. |
| English as a second language | Designation for programs and classes to teach English to students who are not native speakers of English. |
| Enrichment activities | Assignments or activities designed to broaden or deepen the knowledge of students who master classroom lessons quickly. |
| Enrichment programs | Programs in which assignments or activities are designed to broaden or deepen the knowledge of students who master classroom lessons quickly. |
| Episodic memory | A part of long-term memory that stores images of our personal experiences. |
| Equilibration | The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. |
| Ethnic group | A group within a larger society that sees itself as having a common history, social and cultural heritage, and traditions, often based on race, religion, language, or national identity. |
| Ethnicity | A history, culture, and sense of identity shared by a group of people. |
| Evaluation | Decision making about student performance and about appropriate teaching strategies. |
| Events of instruction | A model of instruction developed by Gagné that matches instructional strategies with the cognitive processes involved in learning. |
| Exceptional learners | Students who have abilities or problems so significant that the students require special education or other services to reach their potential. |
| Expectancy theory | Theory of motivation based on the belief that people1s efforts to achieve depend on their expectations of reward. |
| Expectancy-valence model | A theory that relates the probability and incentive of success to motivation. |
| Experimental Group | Group that receives treatment during an experiment. |
| Experiment | Procedure used to test the effects of a treatment. |
| External Validity | Degree to which results of an experiment can be applied to real-life situations. |
| Extinction burst | The increase in levels of behavior in the early stages of extinction. |
| Extinction | Eliminating or decreasing a behavior by removing reinforcement for it. |
| Extrinsic incentive | A reward that is external to the activity, such as recognition or a good grade. |
| Extrinsic reinforcer | Praise or rewards given to motivate people to engage in behavior that they might not engage in without it. |
| Feedback | Information on the results of one1s efforts. |
| Field dependence | Cognitive style in which patterns are perceived as whole. |
| Field independence | Cognitive style in which separate parts of a pattern are perceived and analyzed. |
| Figure-ground relationship | Perceiving selected parts of a stimulus to stand out (figure) from other parts (background). |
| Fixed-interval schedule | Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a constant amount of time. |
| Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule | Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed number of behaviors. |
| Flashbulb memory | Important events that are fixed mainly in visual and auditory memory. |
| Foreclosure | An individual's premature establishment of an identity based on parental choices rather than their own. |
| Formal operational thought | Deals abstractly with hypothetical situations and reason. |
| Formative evaluation | Tests or assessments administered during units of instruction that measure progress and guide the content and pace of lessons. |
| Formative quiz | Evaluation designed to determine whether additional instruction is needed. |
| Free-recall learning | A task requiring recall of a list of items in any order. |
| Full inclusion | Policy or practice of placing all students in regular classes with appropriate assistance. |
| Functional fixedness | Block to solving problems caused by an inability to see new uses for familiar objects or ideas. |
| Gender bias | Different views of males and females, often favoring one gender over the other. |
| Generalization | Carryover of behaviors, skills, or concepts from one setting or task to another. |
| Generative learning | A theory that emphasizes the active integration of new material with existing schemata. |
| Gestalt psychology | A psychological movement, started in Germany, that advanced the understanding of perception. |
| Giftedness | Category of exceptionality characterized by being very bright, creative, or talented. |
| Goal structure | The degree to which students are placed in competitive or cooperative relationships in earning classroom rewards. |
| Grade-equivalent scores | Standard scores that relate students1 raw scores to the average scores obtained by norming groups a t different grade levels. |
| Group alerting | Methods of questioning that encourage students to pay attention during lectures and discussions. |
| Group contingencies | Class rewards that depend on the behavior of all students. |
| Group contingency program | Program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct. |
| Group Investigating | A cooperative learning model that involves small groups in which students work using cooperative inquiry, planning, project, and group discussion, then make a presentation on their findings to the class. |
| Growth needs | Needs for knowing, appreciating, and understanding, which people try to satisfy after their basic needs are met. |
| Handicap | A condition imposed on a person with disabilities by society, the physical environment, or the person1s attitude. |
| Hearing loss | Degree of deafness; uncorrectable inability to hear well. |
| Heteronomous morality | Stage at which children think that rules are unchangeable and that breaking them leads automatically to punishment. |
| Home-based reinforcement strategies | Behavior modification strategies in which a student1s school behavior is reported to parents, who supply rewards. |
| Hyperactivity | Condition characterized by extreme restlessness and short attention spans relative to peers. |
| Identity diffusion | The adolescent's inability to develop a clear sense of self. |
| Identity foreclosure | The premature choice of a role, often done to reinforce self-concept. |
| Imagery | Use of mental images to improve memory. |
| Impulsivity | Cognitive style of responding quickly but often without regard for accuracy. |
| Independent practice | Component of instruction in which students work by themselves to demonstrate and rehearse new knowledge. |
| Individual Learning Expectation (ILE) | A teaching method that includes evaluation of students improvement relative to past achievement. |
| Individualized Education Program (IEP) | Program tailored to the needs of an exceptional child. |
| Individualized instruction | Teaching approach in which each student works at his or her own level and rate. |
| Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) | Federal law P.L. 101-476 enacted in 1990 changing the name of P.L. 94-142 and broadening services to adolescents with disabilities. |
| Inert knowledge | Learned information that can be applied to only a restricted, often artificial set of circumstances. |
| Inferred reality | The meaning of stimuli in the context of relevant information. |
| Inferred reality | The meaning of stimuli in the context of relevant information. |
| Information-processing theory | Cognitive theory of learning that describes the processing, storage, and retrieval of knowledge from the mind. |
| Initial-letter strategy | Strategy for memorization in which initial letters of a list to be memorized are taken to make a word or phrase that is more easily remembered. |
| Instructional objective | A statement of information or tasks that students should master after one or more lessons. |
| Instrumental Enrichment | A thinking-skills program in which students work through a series of paper-and-pencil exercises designed to develop various intellectual abilities. |
| Integrated learning system | A comprehensive, multipurpose set of instructional software developed by one company. |
| Intelligence quotient (IQ) | An intelligence test score that for people of average intelligence should be near 100. |
| Intelligence quotient | An intelligence test score that for people of average intelligence should be near 100. |
| Intelligence quotient | An intelligence test score that for people of average intelligence should be near 100. |
| Intelligence | General aptitude for learning, often measured by ability to deal with abstractions and to solve problems. |
| Intelligence | General aptitude for learning, often measured by ability to deal with abstractions and to solve problems. |
| Interference | A process that occurs when recall of certain information is inhibited by the presence of other information in memory. |
| Internal Validity | The degree to which an experiment's results can be attributed to the treatment in question, not to other factors. |
| Intrinsic incentive | An aspect of an activity that people enjoy and, therefore, find motivating. |
| Intrinsic reinforcer | The pleasure that is inherent in simply engaging in the behavior. |
| Jigsaw | A cooperative learning model in which students are assigned to six-member teams to work on academic material that has been broken down into sections for each member. |
| Joplin Plan | A regrouping method in which students are assigned to groups for reading instruction across grade lines. |
| Keller Plan | A form of mastery learning in which students advance through the curriculum by passing mastery tests. |
| Keyword method | Strategy for improving memory by using images to link pairs of items. |
| Laboratory Experiment | Experiment in which conditions are highly controlled. |
| Language disorders | Impairments in the ability to understand language or to express ideas in one1s native language. |
| Language minority | Term for native speakers of any language other than English. |
| Large muscle development | Movements, such as running or throwing, that involve the limbs and large muscles. |
| Law of Effect | An act that is followed by a favorable effect is more likely to be repeated in similar situations; an act that is followed by an unfavorable effect is less likely to be repeated. |
| Learned helplessness | The expectation, based on experience, that one1s actions will ultimately lead to failure. |
| Learning disabilities (LD) | Disorders that impede academic progress of people who are not mentally retarded or emotionally disturbed. |
| Learning goals | A motivational orientation of students who place primary emphasis on knowledge acquisition and self-improvement. |
| Learning objectives | Specific behaviors students are expected to exhibit at the end of a series of lessons. |
| Learning probe | Methods, such as questions, that help teachers find out if students understand a lesson. |
| Learning styles | Orientation for approaching learning tasks and processing information in certain ways. |
| Learning together | A cooperative learning model that involves students with four- or five-member heterogenous groups on assignments. |
| Learning | A change in an individual that results from experience. |
| Least restrictive environment | Provisions in the law (IDEA) that requires students with disabilities to be educated to the maximum extent appropriate with their nondisabled peers. |
| Lesson planning | Involves stating learning objectives; thinking through what the students will know or be able to do after the lesson; what information, activities, and experiences the teacher will provide; the time needed to reach the objective; what books, materials, an |
| Levels-of-processing theory | Explanation of memory that links recall of a stimulus with the amount of mental processing it receives. |
| Limited English proficiency (LEP) | Descriptive term for students who have limited mastery of English. |
| Loci method | Strategy for remembering lists by picturing items in familiar locations. |
| Locus of control | A personality trait that concerns whether people attribute responsibility for their own failure or success to internal factors or to external factors. |
| Long-term memory | Components of memory where large amounts of information can be stored for long periods of time. |
| Mainstreaming | The placement, for all or part of the school day, of disabled children in regular classes. |
| Maintenance | Continuation of behavior. |
| Mapping | Diagramming main ideas and connections between them. |
| Massed practice | Technique in which facts or skills to be learned are repeated many times over a concentrated period of time. |
| Mastery criterion | A standard students must meet to be considered proficient in a skill. |
| Mastery goals | The goals students must reach to be considered proficient in a skill. |
| Mastery grading | Absolute grading based on criteria for mastery. |
| Mastery learning | System of instruction that emphasizes the achievement of instructional objectives by all students by allowing learning time to vary. |
| Matching items | Given two lists, each item in one list will match with one item in the other list. |
| Meaningful learning | Mental processing of new information leading to its linkage with previously learned knowledge. |
| Means-end analysis | A problem-solving technique that encourages identifying the goal (ends) of a problem, the current situation, and what needs to be done (means) to reduce the difference between the two conditions. |
| Mediated learning | A teaching method in which the teacher guides instruction so that students will master and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive functioning. |
| Mental age | the average test score received by individuals of a given chronological age. |
| Mental retardation | Condition, usually present at birth, that results in below-average intellectual skills and poor adaptive behavior. |
| Mental set | Students' readiness to begin a lesson. |
| Metacognition | Knowing about one's own learning ("thinking about thinking"). |
| Metacognitive skills | Methods for learning. studying. or solving problems. |
| Minimum competency tests | Criterion-referenced tests focusing on important skills students are expected to have mastered to qualify for promotion or graduation. |
| Minority group | An ethnic or racial group that is a minority within a broader society. |
| Mnemonics | Methods for aiding the memory. |
| Mock participation | Situation in which students appear to be on task but are not engaged with learning. |
| Modeling | Learning by observing others' behavior. |
| Moral dilemmas | Hypothetical situations that require a person to consider values of right and wrong. |
| Moratorium | Experimentation with occupational and idelogical choices without definite commitment. |
| Motivation | The influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior. |
| Multicultural education | Education that teaches the value of cultural diversity. |
| Multifactor aptitude battery | Test that predicts ability to learn a variety of specific skills and types of knowledge. |
| Multiple intelligences | In Gardner's theory of intelligence, a person's seven separate |
| Multiple-choice item | Test item usually consisting of a stem followed by choices, or alternatives. |
| Negative Correlation | Relationship in which high scores on one variable correspond to low scores on another. |
| Negative reinforcer | Release from an unpleasant situation to strengthen behavior. |
| Neutral stimuli | Stimuli that do not naturally prompt a particular response. |
| Nongraded programs (cross-age grouping programs) | Programs that combine children of different ages in the same class, generally at the primary level. |
| Nonverbal cues | Eye contact, gestures, physical proximity, or touching used to communicate without interrupting verbal discourse. |
| Normal curve equivalent | Set of standardized scores ranging from 1 to 99, having a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of about 21. |
| Normal curve | Bell-shaped symmetrical distribution of scores in which most scores fall near the mean, with progressively fewer occurring as distance from the mean increases. |
| Normal distribution | Bell-shaped symmetrical distribution of scores in which most scores fall near the mean, with progressively fewer occurring as distance from the mean increases. |
| Norm-referenced evaluations | Assessments that compare the performance of one student against the performance of others. |
| Norms | Standards derived from giving a test to a sample of people similar to those who will take the test and that can be used to interpret scores of future test takers. |
| Note-taking | A study strategy that requires decisions about what to write. |
| Object permanence | Knowing an object exists when it is out of sight. |
| Observational learning | Learning by observation and imitation of others. |
| Operant conditioning | Using consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. |
| Outcomes-based education | An approach to instruction and school organization that clearly specifies what students should know and be able to do at the end of a course of study. |
| Outlining | Representing the main points of material in heirarchical format. |
| Overlapping | A teacher1s ability to respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson. |
| Overlearning | Method of improving retention by practicing new knowledge or behaviors after mastery is achieved. |
| Paired-associate learning | A task involving the linkage of two items in a pair so that when one is presented the other can be recalled.serial learning--A task requiring recall of a list of items. |
| Parallel distributed processing | A model based on the idea that information is processed simultaneously in the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. |
| Parallel play | Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence. |
| Parenting styles | General patterns of behavior used by parents when dealing with their children. |
| Part learning | Mastering new material by learning it one part or subskill at a time. |
| Pedagogy | The study of teaching and learning with applications to the instructional process. |
| Peer tutoring | One student teaching another. |
| Peers | People who are equal in age or status. |
| Pegword method | Strategy for memorization in which images are used to link lists of facts to a familiar set of words or numbers. |
| Percentile score | Derived score that designates what percent of the norming group earned raw scores lower than a particular score. |
| Perception | A person's interpretation of stimuli. |
| Performance assessment | Assessment of a student's ability to perform tasks, not just knowledge. |
| Performance goals | A motivational orientation of students who place primary emphasis on gaining recognition from others and earning good grades. |
| Permissive parents | Parents who give their children great freedom. |
| Portfolio assessment | Assessment of a collection of the students work in an area showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement. |
| Positive Correlation | Relationship in which high scores on one variable correspond to high scores on another. |
| Positive reinforcer | Consequence given to strengthen behavior. |
| Postconventional level of morality | Stages 5 and 6 in Kohlberg's model of moral development, in which individuals make moral judgements in relation to abstract principles. |
| PQ4R method | A study stategy that has students preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review material. |
| Preconventional level of morality | Stages 1 and 2 in Kohlberg's model of moral development, in which individuals make moral judgments in their own interests. |
| Predictive validity- | A measure of the ability of a test to predict future behavior. |
| Premack Principle | Using favored activities to reinforce participation in less desired activities. |
| Preoperational stage | Stage at which children learn mentally to represent things. |
| Presentation punishment | Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior. |
| Primacy effect | The tendency for items that appear at the beginning of a list to be more easily recalled than other items. |
| Primary reinforcer | Food, water, or other consequence that satisfies basic needs. |
| Principle | Explanation of the relationship between factors such as the effects of alternative grading systems on student motivation. |
| Private speech | Children's self-talk, which guides their thinking and action. Eventually these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech. |
| Proactive facilitation | Increased ability to learn new information due to previously acquired information. |
| Proactive inhibition | Decreased ability to learn new information because of interference of present knowledge. |
| Problem solving | The application of knowledge and skills to achieve certain goals. |
| Problem-solving assessment | Involves organizing, selecting, and applying complex procedures that have at least several important steps or components. |
| Procedural memory | A part of long-term memory that stores information about how to do things. |
| Process-product studies | Research approach in which the teaching practices of effective teachers are recorded through classroom observation. |
| Programmed instruction | Structured lessons that students can work on individually, at their own pace. |
| Prosocial behaviors | Actions that show respect and caring for others. |
| Psychosocial crisis | A set of critical issues that individuals must address as they pass through eight life stages, according to Erikson. |
| Psychosocial theory | A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development. |
| Puberty | Developmental stage at which a person becomes capable of reproduction. |
| Public Law 94142 | 1975 federal law requiring provision of special education services to eligible students. |
| Pull-out programs | Compensatory education programs in which students are placed in separate classes for remediation. |
| Punishment | Using unpleasant consequences to weaken a behavior. |
| QAIT model | A model of effective instruction that focuses on elements that teachers can directly control. |
| Race | Visible, genetic characteristics of individuals that cause them to be seen as members of the same broad group (e.g. , African, Asian, Caucasian). |
| Random Assignment | Selection by chance into different treatment groups to try to ensure equality of the groups. |
| Randomized Field Experiment | Experiment conducted under realistic conditions in which individuals are assigned by chance to receive different practical treatments or programs. |
| Readiness tests | Tests to assess the student1s level of skills and knowledge necessary for a given activity. |
| Readiness training | Teaching the skills and knowledge necessary for a given activity. |
| Reading Recovery | A program that provides one-to-one tutoring from specially trained teachers to first-graders who are not reading adequately. |
| Recency effect | The tendency for items that appear at the end of a list to be more easily recalled than other items. |
| Reciprocal teaching | A teaching method based on the principles of question generation, in which metacognitive skills are taught through instruction and teacher modeling to improve the reading performance of students who have poor comprehension. |
| Reflectivity | The act of analyzing oneself and one's own thoughts. |
| Reflectivity | The act of analyzing oneself and one's own thoughts. |
| Reflexes | Inborn, automatic responses to stimuli (e.g., eyeblinking in response to bright light. |
| Regrouping | A method of ability grouping in which students in mixed-ability classes are assigned to reading or math classes on the basis of their performance levels. |
| Rehearsal | Mental repetition of information, which can improve its retention. |
| Reinforcer | A pleasurable consequence that maintains or increases a behavior. |
| Relative grading standard | Grading on the basis of how well other students performed on the same test rather than in terms of preestablished absolute standards. |
| Reliability | A measure of the consistency of test scores obtained from the same students at different times. |
| Reliability | A measure of the consistency of test scores obtained from the same students at different times. |
| Remediation | Instruction given to students having difficulty learning. |
| Removal punishment | Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior. |
| Retroactive facilitation | Increased comprehension of previously learned information due to the acquisition of new information. |
| Retroactive inhibition | Decreased ability to recall previously learned information causedby learning of new information. |
| Reversibility | The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse one's thinking to return to the starting point. |
| Rote learning | Memorization of facts or associations. |
| Rule-example-rule | Pattern of teaching concepts by presenting a rule or definition, giving examples, and then showing how examples illustrate the rule. |
| Scaffolding | Support for learning and problem solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner. |
| Schedule of reinforcement | The frequency and predictability of reinforcement. |
| Schema theory | Theory that information is stored in long-term memory in networks of connected facts and concepts that provide a structure for making sense of new information. |
| Schemata | Mental networks of related concepts that influence understanding of new information. |
| Schemes | Mental patterns that guide behavior. |
| Seatwork | Work that students are assigned to do independently during class. |
| Secondary reinforcer | A consequence that people learn to value through its association with a primary reinforcer. |
| Self-actualization | A person1s desire to develop to his or her full potential. |
| Self-concept | A person's perception of his or her own strengths and weaknesses. |
| Self-esteem | The value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. |
| Self-regulated learners | Students who have knowledge of effective learning strategies and how and when to use them. |
| Self-regulation | Rewarding or punishing one's own behavior. |
| Self-regulation | The ability to think and solve problems without the help of others. |
| Semantic memory | A part of long-term memory that stores facts and general knowledge. |
| Sensorimotor stage | Stage during which infants learn about their surroundings by using their sensesand motor skills. |
| Sensory impairments | Problems with the ability to receive information through the body1s senses. |
| Sensory register | Component of the memory system where information is received and held for very short periods of time. |
| Seriation | Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume. |
| Sex-role behavior | Behavior associated with one sex as opposed to the other. |
| Shaping | Using small steps combined with feedback to help learners reach goals. |
| Short essay item | Test item that includes a question for the student to answer, which may range from a sentence or two to a page of, say, 100 to 150 words. |
| Short-term memory | Component of memory where limited amounts of information can be stored for a few seconds. |
| Sign systems | Symbols that cultures create to help people think, communicate, and solve problems. |
| Simulation software | Computer programs that model real-life phenomena to promote problem solving and motivate interest in the areas concerned. |
| Single-Case Experiment | Study of a treatment's effect on one person or one group by contrasting behavior before, during, and after the treatment is applied. |
| Skinner box | An apparatus developed by B. F. Skinner for observing animal behavior in experiments in operant conditioning. |
| Small muscle development | Movements of the fine muscles of the hand. |
| Small-group discussion | A discussion among four to six students in a group working independently of a teacher. |
| Social comparison | The process of comparing one's self to others to gather information and to evaluate and judge one's abilities. |
| Social learning theory | Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others. |
| Socioeconomic status (SES) | A measure of prestige within a social group most often based on income and education. |
| Solitary play | Play that occurs alone. |
| Special education | Programs that address the needs of students with mental, emotional, or physical disabilities. |
| Speech disorders | Articulation problems occurring most frequently among children in the early elementary school grades. |
| Standard deviation | A statistical measure of the degree of dispersion in a distribution of scores. |
| Standardized tests | Tests that are usually commercially prepared for nationwide use to provide accurate and meaningful information on student's level of performance relative to others at their age or grade levels. |
| Stanine scores | A type of standardized score ranging from 1 to 9, having a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2. |
| Stem | A question or a partial statement in a test item that is completed by one of several choices. |
| Stimuli | Environmental conditions that activate the senses. |
| Student Teams-Achievement Divisions(STAD | A cooperative learning method for mixed-ability groupings involving team recognition and group responsibility for individual learning. |
| Students at risk | Students who are likely to be low-achieving or 3at risk2 for school failure. |
| Students at risk | Students who are subject to school failure because of characteristics of the student or inadequate responses to their needs by school, family, or community. |
| Success for All | A comprehensive approach to prevention and early intervention for preschool, kindergarten, and grades 1 through 5, with one-to-one tutoring, family support services, and changes in instruction that might be needed to prevent students from falling behind. |
| Summarization | Brief statements that represent the main idea of the information being read. |
| Summative evaluation | Assessments that follow instruction and evaluate knowledge or skills. |
| Summative quiz | Final test of an objective. |
| Table of specifications | List of instructional objectives and expected levels of understanding that guide test development. |
| Task analysis | Breaking down tasks into fundamental subskills. |
| Taxonomy of educational objectives | Bloom's ordering of objectives from simple learning tasks to more complex ones. |
| Teaching objectives | Clear statement of what students are intended to learn through instruction. |
| Test bias | An undesirable characteristic of tests in which item content discriminates against certain students on the basis of socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, or gender. |
| Theory | A set of principles that explain and relate certain phenomena. |
| Time on-task | Time spent actively engaged in learning the task at hand. |
| Time out | Removing a student from a situation in which misbehavior was reinforced. |
| Time out | Removing a student from a situation in which misbehavior was reinforced. |
| Title I | Formerly Chapter 1, compensatory programs that were reauthorized as Title 1 of the Improving America's Schools Act (IASA) in 1994. |
| Tracks | Classes or curricula targeted for students of a specified achievement or ability level. |
| Transfer of learning | The application of knowledge acquired in one situation to new situations. |
| Transfer-appropriate processing | A theory that proposes that memory is stronger and lasts longer when the conditions of performance are similar to those under which learning occurred. |
| Transitvity | A skill learned during the concrete operational stage of cognitive development in which individuals can mentally arrange and compare objects. |
| Traumatic brain injury (TBI) | Direct injury to the brain, such as a tearing of nerve fibers, bruising of the brain tissues against the skull, brain stem trauma, or swelling. |
| Treatment | A special program that is the subject of an experiment. |
| True-false item | One form of multiple-choice test item, most useful when a comparison of two alternatives is called for. |
| Tutorial programs | Computer programs that teach lessons by varying their content and pace according to student responses. |
| Unconditioned response (UR) | A behavior prompted automatically by stimuli. |
| Unconditioned stimulus (US) | A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response. |
| Uncorrelated Variables | Lack of relationship between two variables. |
| Untracking | A focus on having students in mixed-ability groups and holding them to high standards but providing many way to reach those standards. |
| Validity | A measure of the degree to which a test is appropriate for its intended use. |
| Variable-interval schedule | Dispensing reinforcement for behavior emitted following an unpredictable amount of time. |
| Variable-ratio schedule (VR) | Dispensing reinforcement following an unpredictable number of correct behaviors. |
| Variable | Something that can have more than one value. |
| Verbal learning | Learning of words or facts under various conditions. |
| Vicarious learning | Learning from observation the consequences of others1 behavior. |
| Videodisc | Interactive programs that include videos. films. still pictures, and music. |
| Vision Loss | Degree of uncorrectable inability to see well. |
| Volition | The motivation or will to make something happen, to reach one's goal. |
| Wait time | Length of time that a teacher allows a student to take to answer a question. Calling order--The order in which students are called by the teacher to answer questions asked during the course of a lesson. |
| Whole language | An educational philosophy that emphasizes the integration of reading, writing, and language and communication skills across the curriculum in the context of authentic or real-life materials, problems, and tasks. |
| Whole-class discussion | A discussion among all the students in a class with the teacher as moderator. |
| Within-class ability grouping | A system of accommodating student differences by dividing a class of students into two or more ability groups for instruction in certain subjects. |
| Withitness | The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student performance. |
| Word processing | A computer application for writing compositions that lends itself to revising and editing. |
| Working memory | Another term for short-term memory. |
| Zone of proximal development | Level of development immediately above a person's present level. |
| Z-score | Standard score having a mean of zero and a standard deviation of 1. |
| Edward C. Cubberley | supported complete state control of democratic school systems |
| Robert J. Breckenridge | wrote anti-papism literature influencing exclusion of Catholic schools from public funding |
| Lloyd P. Jorgenson | revealed prejudicial side of common school movement |
| Berard Bailyn | described educators of the early 20th century as educational missionaries |
| Pedro Ponce de Leon | Spanish monk; successful in teaching a small group of pupils who were deaf to speak, read, and write |
| Juan Bonet | developed an early version of finger spelling for individuals who were deaf |
| Abbe de I'Epee | opened a school in Paris for individuals who were deaf |
| Valentine Huay | established a school for individuals who were blind in Paris |
| Phillipe Pinel | renowned scientist who founded wild boy |
| Jean Marc Gaspard Itard | obtained custody of wild boy and launched an involved program to civilize and educate him; important classic in the education of individuals with mental retardation |
| Alexander Graham Bell | suggested forming an annex to the public schools to provide special classes for individuals with hearing impairment, visual impairment, and mental retardation |
| The first special classes were established in 1869 in Boston for | deaf students. |
| The first special classes were established in 1896 in Chicago for | for blind students. |
| The normalization principle was a major factor in the development of community-based services for individuals with | mental retardation. |
| In 1975, Congress enacted a federal law known as Public Law (P.L.) 94-142 or the | Education of All Handicapped Children Act. |
| Starting in 1983, this was amended several times and expanded its range of programs to include early intervention programs for infants/toddlers with disabilities and transition programs. | P.L. 94-142 |
| In 1990, P.L. 94-142 was renamed to the | Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). |
| Refers to a condition that a person has. | Disability |
| Describes the consequences of having the disability. | Handicap |
| Defines special education as specially designed instruction. | IDEA |
| Under IDEA, a student is eligible for special education services if he/she has a disability and because of the disability, the student has | exceptional learning needs. |
| There are this many categories of exceptionality in which students aged 6-21 are served under IDEA? | 12 |
| academic competence | The ability to use language to learn academic content. (Including using spoken & written English to do assignments, interact with teachers, and communicate with native-English-speaking peers.) |
| active listening | Having students listen for specific information. |
| affective filter hypothesis | Hypothesis that language acquisition is related directly to the student's attitude about learning. (Krashen's Theory) |
| BICS/CALP | The distinction between conversational fluency (basic interpersonal communication skills, or BICS), and academic language (cognitive/academic language proficiency, or CALP). |
| bottom-up processing | Moving from the physical characteristics of language (e.g., letter-sounds) that are interpreted into successively more symbolic and meaningful levels (syntax and semantics). Often contrasted with top-down processing. |
| buy-in | Inducement of students to go along with the instructional goals of the teacher, usually fostered by helping students realize how a particular type of learning will help them. |
| change agents | Teachers' role in advocating for the interests of the students they teach. ELL students and their families often do not have the skills or knowledge of the schooling system to make their voices heard in the school and community. |
| communicative competence | The ability to use language to communicate orally or in writing. |
| comprehensible input hypothesis | Hypothesis that successful acquisition of meaningful language occurs when a student is exposed to input that is just a little above the learner's present level. |
| contrastive analysis | A systematic linguistic analysis of the structures of the learners' native and target languages. Contrastive analysis can be performed at different levels of language--sound, lexicon, grammar, meaning, and rhetoric. |
| error correction | Using standard English to correct a learner's speech errors. |
| error fossilization | When a learner makes the same error repeatedly, without explicit outside correction, they reach the point where they never "hear" the error. The speaker assumes his or her way of speaking is correct. |
| formative assessment | Assessment used throughout teaching of a lesson and/or unit to gauge students' understanding and inform and guide teaching |
| inside-outside circle | A strategy that allows students to practice speaking and listening by sharing information with a variety of partners. |
| interlanguage | The language produced by learners in the period before they reach native-like proficiency. |
| intrinsic motivation | Motivation that stems from one's own needs or desires, not requiring extrinsic incentives. |
| knowledge of students | An understanding and appreciation of students' personal attributes, experiences, their cultures and communities, and how all this fits in with their learning. |
| language acquisition hypothesis | A subconscious process in which learners develop competence by using language for "real communication." This is often contrasted with taking courses to learn language. |
| language learning hypothesis | A conscious process in which learners develop competence through formal studying of the language, including its rules, grammar and phonetic components |
| learning assessment | Gauging the progress of students |
| learning to learn | Learning strategies for learning. |
| meaningful learning | Learning based on students' experiences, interests, and goals |
| microskills | The many small skills needed in a larger course of action. |
| modeling | When the teacher demonstrates an activity or lesson before having students do the lesson or activity on their own |
| monitor hypothesis | The mechanism by which second language learners process, store, and retrieve conscious language rules. |
| natural order hypothesis | A hypothesis that students acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order, regardless of their native languages |
| output | The speech or writing that a learner produces in a target language |
| reflection | Evaluating information from a variety of sources and applying observations of one's own practice back into instructional planning. |
| role play | An activity acting out situations encountered in the classroom or in everyday life, using the language that might be used in such situations |
| scaffolding | Providing supports to help a student do a student do a task. These supports are gradually withdrawn as the student masters the task, thus transferring more and more autonomy to the child. Strategies for scaffolding student work include modeling, questioni |
| social competence | The ability to use the target language appropriately in various social situations. This includes knowing the target culture well enough to appreciate subtle socio-cultural differences in social interactions. |
| summative assessment | Measuring students' learning at the end of a lesson |
| think, pair, share | Students: 1) think about the lesson topic; 2) pair up with partners and share according to the guidelines the teacher has provided; 3) share their discussions with the rest of the class. Each person takes a turn retelling their partners' information. |
| top-down processing | Beginning with processing the higher symbolic and semantic level of meaning of a text and working one's way back to processing the physical characteristics of language (e.g., letter-sounds). |
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almacrawford