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PSY 215 Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| theories | cannot be proven, but can be disproven (can be supported); rely on rationalism; set of logically consistent statements or propositions |
| how does media influence violent behavior? | "seduction of the innocents" (Wertham 1954); shows a relationship between violence and comic books |
| intuition | accepting ideas as valid b/c they "feel" true based on gut feelings or hunches |
| tenacity | accepting ideas as true or valid b/c they have been around for so long; "monkey see, monkey do" |
| authority | accepting ideas as valid b/c they are presented as true by a respected authority |
| pros of authority | authorities often have expertise that make them credible |
| cons of authority | authorities may have an agenda or biases that influence judgement |
| rationalism | developing valid ideas using extensive ideas and principles of logic; conclusion is logical given the assumptions, but how do we prove the assumptions? |
| empiricism | form of rationalism; gaining knowledge through observation or experience and reflection on those experiences |
| problem with empiricism | one person's subjective experience isn't enough to draw reliable conclusions |
| conformation bias | social cognition bias in which events that confirm a strongly held belief are more rapidly perceived and remembered; disconfirming events are ignored and forgotten |
| what are the characteristics of science? | 1. asks empirical questions 2. assumes determinism and discoverability 3. produces data-based conclusions 4. produces tentative conclusions 5. develops theories that can be disproven 6. produces public knowledge 7. makes systematic observations |
| empirical questions | questions that can be answered through systematic observations |
| science combines rationalism with _________ | empiricism |
| systematic observations | precisely defining what will be measured, implementing valid and reliable measures ; devises a system for sitting observations into an existing theory-these maintain objectivity |
| science produces _______-______ conclusions | data based; collect data that addresses questions |
| determinism | statistical; events can be predicted above the level of chance |
| discoverability | accessibility and usability |
| falsification | scientific theories are articulated with enough precision that they can be disproven if incorrect |
| objectivity criterion of public knowledge in science | agreement by two or more observers |
| scientific theories are always subject to ______ due to new evidence found | revision |
| what are the goals of psychology research? | 1. description 2. prediction 3. explanation 4. application |
| developing research from theory requires... | deduction and induction |
| paths of induction | specific ideas relate to the broad idea; facts gathered from deduction feeds broad ideas |
| paths of deduction | broad idea feeds specific predictions from which you collect facts |
| functions of theories | 1. summarize existing evidence 2. organize evidence into interrelated statements 3. provides a tentative explanation for evidence 4. provide a basis for making predictions--includes constructs |
| construct | hypothetical factors |
| hypothesis | reasoned prediction (i.e. deduction) about an empirical result |
| data | a set of observations that speak to the plausibility of the theory (induction); is the pattern of data consistent with the theory? |
| "modus tollen" | logically correct |
| affirming the consequent | (…then it must be…) logically incorrect |
| it is not logically possible to ______ a theory | prove |
| 3 fundamental characteristics of a theory | 1. productivity 2. falsification 3. parsimony |
| productivity | theory generates a number of testable predictions |
| parsimony | explaining and predicting with the fewest number of propositions or statements; ex: "clever hans" can a horse do math? tested and found to only be taking subtle queues from owner |
| basic research | designed to describe and explain fundamental psychological phenomena; i.e. Skinner's studies on learning behavior; enhances the general body of knowledge |
| applied research | designed to shed light on solutions to real-world problems; could be in a classroom, athletic performance, etc. |
| pseudoscience | applied to any field of inquiry that appears to use the methods of science, but it is actually inadequate, unscientific claims; i.e. Phernology-determining your personality by the contour of your skull |
| what are the characteristics of pseudoscience? | 1. relies heavily on anecdotal evidence (ignores counter instances) 2. Associates with real science (tries to appear legit) 3. sidesteps disproof (avoids falsification by explaining anomalies) |
| pseudoscience lacks _______ and is tainted with _________ ______ | falsifiability; confirmation bias |
| present present bias | focus in on things that affirm idea of positive result (type of confirmation bias) |
| variables | characteristics that can differ across observations; both independent and dependent variables can take on different values |
| constants | remain constant |
| variables and constants are ______ to any one study | specific |
| conceptual definition | general or broad definition of an idea/construct |
| operational definition | variables defined in terms of a clearly specified set of performed operations |
| what are the three claims? | 1. frequency claim 2. association claim 3. causal claim |
| frequency claim | describe the rate @ which a particular event occurs; summarize the results from a large number of systematic observations; report the results of measured variables; focus on 1 variable at a time |
| association claim | present a relationship between two variables; allow you to predict values on one variable using values on another variable; typically involve measured variables rather than manipulated variables |
| causal claims | assert that changes in one variable lead to changes in another variable; three ingredients needed (covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity) |
| covariance | "association;" when one variable is present, the other is too, and vice versa |
| temporal precedence | causal variable must come first |
| internal validity | the reaction, or 2nd variable, is only logically caused by the causal variable |
| What are the four validities | 1. construct validities 2. statistical conclusion validity 3. external validity 4. internal validity |
| construct validity | how well do the operationalized variables reflect the variables and the conceptual level? there must be well chosen and well defined independent and dependent variables |
| statistical conclusion validity | do the reported statistics support the conclusions? Do they use the right statistics? Do they use procedures to make sure statistics are accurate |
| external validity | to what extent do the results generalize to other contexts and/or people? how can the results apply on a multicultural level? |
| internal validity | to what extent is the study free of confounding variables? |
| confounding variables | variables that could provide an alternative explanation for the results |
| How do you use the four validities to evaluate a frequency claim? | 1. how well has the variable been measured? (construct) 2. how well will the results generalize? (external) 3. how accurate are the stats? (stats conclusion) 4. Did they use representative sampling? |
| representative sampling | probability sampling-there's an equal chance of being in sample |
| biased sampling | self-selection bias; is your sample biased in any way towards one group of people |
| How do you use the four validities to evaluate association claims | 1. how well are the variables measured? 2. how well do the results generalize? 3. how accurate are the stats? 4. significance and strength of relationship? |
| significant | it's unlikely to occur by chance if the p value <0.05 |
| strength | r values indicate relationship strength; -1.0 to +1.0 |
| How do you use the four validities to evaluate causal claims? | 1. is study an experiment? (systematic research where the they manipulates variables, establishing covariance & temporal precedence, & are other factors held constant?) 2. variables measured well? 3. do results generalize? 4. accuracy of stats? |
| The Nuremberg Code 1949 | Nazi populations using Jewish population to do medical research and experiments; resulted in 1st code of ethics in which subjects cannot be used against their will |
| Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972) | conducted on poor, rural African American Men; recruited those with syphilis and told them they would be receiving treatments (but they weren't receiving treatments); studied the effects of syphilis on humans |
| US Public Health Services (1940's) | infecting patients with STD's to observe effects; used prisoners, etc. |
| John Watson's "Little Albert" (1920) | Watson studied behavior of 100's of infants; studies fear of Albert by associating loud noise with white furry rat; Albert soon fears every white furry thing; learned that fears are learned |
| McGraw (1941) | studied effects of repeated pinpricks |
| Dennis (1941) | raising children in isolation; twins were isolated to see effects |
| MK ULTRA (CIA-LSD) | studied effects of LSD on soldiers |
| Milgram Obedience Studies | "Learner" and "teacher" roles; teacher was led to believe that when the learner made a mistake, they were electrically shocked; the teachers would hear the learner's moans of pain; studied obedience (70% of participants remained obedient) |
| The Belmont Report | 1. Beneficence 2. Justice 3. Respect for Persons |
| Beneficence | constantly weigh costs and benefits of proposed research to produce greatest good (human and animal research) |
| Justice | Always treat people fairly |
| respect for persons | safeguard welfare, protect rights of volunteers |
| APA Ethics Code | most recent revision; uses principles of Belmont Report |
| IRB's are responsible for weighing ______ and ______ of research to ensure ethical treatment | costs and benefits |
| An IRB must contain: | 1. at least 5 members 2. at least one non-scientist member 3. at least one member from non-academic community |
| Research Participants must have sufficient information to ________ to research | consent |
| a study should be explained in _______ language | plain |
| what are the elements of consent? | 1. study's basic description 2. how long it will take 3. you may quit at any time 4. confidentiality and anonymity ensured 5. contact information given (researcher, IRB) 6. Signatures |
| "Henrietta Lacks" | "HeLa"; "The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks"; Henrietta Lacks was diagnosed with cancer and her cells were harvested without her knowing. The cells were grown in a lab and used for research. |
| When is no consent OK? | Some surveys, educational, archival, and observational research |
| children cannot technically give consent; they give ____ | assent; find a common language so that child understands research/study |
| Vulnerable populations must not be _______ into research | coerced |
| how should you decide if compensation given is too much? | would this person agree to this research if I weren't offering this compensation? |
| What is the key concern of IRB's? | degree of risk to subjects |
| IRB Level of Reviews | 1. exempt 2. expedited 3. Full review |
| Exempt | deemed to have no real risk to participants |
| expedited | minimal risk (as in everyday life) |
| full review | at risk (greater than everyday life) |
| example of exempt research | naturalistic observation |
| example of research that's expedited | lab experiments with cognitive performance, memory, etc. |
| example of research that may require full review | anything that requires a change in brain chemistry (drugs, alcohol, etc.); research involving deception; videotaped research (confidentiality issues) |
| deception rationale | desire to have subjects act naturally |
| debriefing | revealing true purpose of research |
| desensitizing | process of reducing stress or negative feelings as a result of deception |
| IRB controversies | 1. concept of risk is subjective 2. IRB members may not have full knowledge of research methods 3. basic research is not always valued 4. insistence of safeguards not relevant to psychology research 5. No appeals process |
| issues with internet research | 1. privacy-confidentiality 2. problems with ensuring consent 3. problems with conducting effective debriefing |
| APA code for animal research | 1. justifying the study (cost-benefit analysis) 2. caring for the animals (expertise with animals; vets check facilities bi-annually) 3. using animals for educational purposes (find ways to minimize use) |
| refinement | modify procedures and practices to minimize distress of animals |
| replacement | look for alternatives to animal research |
| reduction | employ procedures that reduce the number of animals needed for research |
| UPenn Head Injury Clinic (1983) | inflicted head and neck injuries on 150 non-humans primates (baboons and monkeys); blunt force trauma to produce skull fracture, whiplash, unconsciousness in unanesthesized animals; every procedure videoed (60 hours)--given to PETA, NIH closed researched |
| plagiarism | taking others ideas and using them as your own (big offense); avoided by proper citation |
| data falsification | set of data is altered or manipulated to show desired results |
| data fabrication | making up data and presenting it as true |
| example of data fabrication | 1. vaccine-autism debate; Andrew Wakefield; trials not randomized 2. Stapel's psychology research |
Created by:
asexton_21