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SOCL FINAL
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| antipositivism | the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values |
| conflict theory | a theory that looks at society as a competition for limited resources dramaturgical analysis |
| dynamic equilibrium | a stable state in which all parts of a healthy society are working together properly |
| dysfunctions | social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society |
| figuration | the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of an individual and the society that shapes that behavior |
| functionalism | a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society |
| function | the part a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity |
| grand theories | attempts to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change |
| latent functions | the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process |
| macro-level | a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society |
| manifest functions | sought consequences of a social process |
| micro-level theories | the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups |
| paradigms | philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them |
| positivism | the scientific study of social patterns |
| qualitative sociology | in-depth interviews, focus groups, and/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data |
| quantitative sociology | statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants |
| social facts | the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life |
| social solidarity | the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion |
| sociological imagination | the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular |
| sociology | is the systematic study of society and social interaction |
| symbolic interactionism | a theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols) |
| theory | a proposed explanation about social interactions or society |
| beliefs | tenets or convictions that people hold to be true |
| countercultures | groups that reject and oppose society’s widely accepted cultural patterns |
| cultural imperialism | the deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture |
| cultural relativism | the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards, and not in comparison to another culture |
| cultural universals | patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies |
| culture lag | the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture’s acceptance of it |
| culture shock | an experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life |
| culture | shared beliefs, values, and practices |
| diffusion | the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another |
| discoveries | things and ideas found from what already exists |
| ethnocentrism | to evaluate another culture according to the standards of one’s own culture |
| folkways | direct appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture |
| formal norms | established, written rules |
| globalization | the integration of international trade and finance markets |
| high culture | the cultural patterns of a society’s elite |
| ideal culture | consists of the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to |
| informal norms | casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to |
| innovations | new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time |
| inventions | a combination of pieces of existing reality into new forms |
| language | a symbolic system of communication |
| material culture | the objects or belongings of a group of people |
| mores | the moral views and principles of a group |
| nonmaterial culture | the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society |
| norms | the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured |
| popular culture | mainstream, widespread patterns among a society’s population |
| real culture | the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists |
| Sapir-Whorf hypothesis | people understand the world based on their form of language |
| sanctions | a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors |
| social control | a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms |
| society | people who live in a definable community and who share a culture |
| subcultures | groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society’s majority, even as the members exist within a larger society |
| symbols | gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture |
| values | a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society |
| xenocentrism | a belief that another culture is superior to one’s own |
| achieved status | the status a person chooses, such as a level of education or income |
| agricultural societies | societies that rely on farming as a way of life |
| alienation | an individual’s isolation from his society, his work, and his sense of self |
| anomie | a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness |
| ascribed status | the status outside of an individual’s control, such as sex or race |
| bourgeoisie | the owners of the means of production in a society |
| class consciousness | awareness of one’s rank in society |
| collective conscience | the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society |
| false consciousness | a person’s beliefs and ideology are in conflict with her best interests |
| feudal societies | societies that operate on a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection |
| habitualization | the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit |
| horticultural societies | societies based around the cultivation of plants |
| hunter-gatherer societies | societies that depend on hunting wild animals and gathering uncultivated plants for survival |
| industrial societies | societies characterized by a reliance on mechanized labor to create material goods |
| information societies | societies based on the production of nonmaterial goods and services |
| institutionalization | the act of implanting a convention or norm into society |
| iron cage | a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions |
| looking-glass self | our reflection of how we think we appear to others |
| mechanical solidarity | a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture |
| organic solidarity | a type of social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences |
| pastoral societies | societies based around the domestication of animals |
| proletariat | the laborers in a society |
| rationalization | a belief that modern society should be built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition |
| role conflict | when one or more of an individual’s roles clash |
| role performance | the expression of a role |
| role strain | stress that occurs when too much is required of a single role |
| role-set | an array of roles attached to a particular status |
| roles | patterns of behavior that are representative of a person’s social status |
| self-fulfilling prophecy | an idea that becomes true when acted upon |
| social integration | how strongly a person is connected to his or her social group |
| status | the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to their rank and role in society |
| Thomas theorem | how a subjective reality can drive events to develop in accordance with that reality, despite being originally unsupported by objective reality |
| anticipatory socialization | when we prepare for future life roles |
| degradation ceremony | the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identity and are given new ones |
| generalized other | the common behavioral expectations of general society |
| hidden curriculum | the informal teaching done in schools that socializes children to societal norms |
| moral development | the way people learn what is “good” and “bad” in society |
| nature | the influence of our genetic makeup on self-development |
| nurture | the role that our social environment plays in self-development |
| peer group | a group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests |
| resocialization | the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their place |
| self | a person’s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction |
| socialization | the process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values |
| caste system | a system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives |
| class system | social standing based on social factors and individual accomplishments |
| class traits | also called class markers, the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class |
| class | a group who shares a common social status based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation |
| conspicuous consumption | buying and using products to make a statement about social standing |
| Davis-Moore thesis | thesis that argues some social stratification is a social necessity |
| downward mobility | a lowering of one’s social class |
| endogamous marriages | unions of people within the same social category |
| exogamous marriages | unions of spouses from different social categories |
| global stratification | a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole |
| income | the money a person earns from work or investments |
| intergenerational mobility | a difference in social class between different generations of a family |
| intragenerational mobility | a difference in social class between different members of the same generation |
| meritocracy | an ideal system in which personal effort—or merit—determines social standing |
| primogeniture | a law stating that all property passes to the firstborn son |
| social mobility | the ability to change positions within a social stratification system |
| social stratification | a socioeconomic system that divides society’s members into categories ranking from high to low, based on things like wealth, power, and prestige |
| standard of living | the level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle |
| status consistency | the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual’s rank across social categories like income, education, and occupation |
| structural mobility | when societal changes enable a whole group of people to move up or down the class ladder |
| upward mobility | an increase—or upward shift—in social class |
| wealth | the value of money and assets a person has from, for example, inheritance |
| absolute poverty | the state where one is barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities |
| capital flight | the movement (flight) of capital from one nation to another, via jobs and resources |
| chattel slavery | a form of slavery in which one person owns another |
| core nations | dominant capitalist countries |
| debt accumulation | the buildup of external debt, wherein countries borrow money from other nations to fund their expansion or growth goals |
| debt bondage | when people pledge themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage, and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom |
| deindustrialization | the loss of industrial production, usually to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations where the costs are lower |
| dependency theory | theory which states that global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations |
| first world | a term from the Cold War era that is used to describe industrialized capitalist democracies |
| fourth world | a term that describes stigmatized minority groups who have no voice or representation on the world stage |
| global feminization | a pattern that occurs when women bear a disproportionate percentage of the burden of poverty |
| global inequality | the concentration of resources in core nations and in the hands of a wealthy minority |
| global stratification | the unequal distribution of resources between countries |
| gross national income (GNI) | the income of a nation calculated based on goods and services produced, plus income earned by citizens and corporations headquartered in that country |
| modernization theory | a theory that low-income countries can improve their global economic standing by industrialization of infrastructure and a shift in cultural attitudes towards work |
| peripheral nations | nations on the fringes of the global economy, dominated by core nations, with very little industrialization |
| relative poverty | the state of poverty where one is unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in the country |
| second world | a term from the Cold War era that describes nations with moderate economies and standards of living |
| semi-peripheral nations | in-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but acting as a major source of raw materials and an expanding middle class marketplace |
| subjective poverty | a state of poverty composed of many dimensions, subjectively present when one’s actual income does not meet one’s expectations |
| third world | a term from the Cold War era that refers to poor, unindustrialized countries |
| underground economy | an unregulated economy of labor and goods that operates outside of governance, regulatory systems, or human protections |
| aggregate | a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don’t interact or share a sense of identity |
| authoritarian leader | a leader who issues orders and assigns tasks |
| bureaucracies | are formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality |
| category | people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way |
| clear division of labor | refers to the fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform |
| coercive organizations | are organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital |
| conformity | the extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms |
| democratic leader | a leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before moving into action |
| dyad | a two-member group |
| explicit rules | the types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized |
| expressive function | a group function that serves an emotional need |
| expressive leader | a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone’s emotional wellbeing |
| formal organizations | large, impersonal organizations |
| generalizability | the amount that information from a specific example can be generalized to apply to the overall population |
| group | any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity |
| hierarchy of authority | a clear chain of command found in a bureaucracy |
| Iron Rule of Oligarchy | the theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration |
| impersonality | the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation |
| in-group | a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of his identity |
| instrumental function | being oriented toward a task or goal |
| instrumental leader | a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks |
| laissez-faire leader | a hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions |
| leadership function | the main focus or goal of a leader |
| leadership style | the style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members |
| McDonaldization | the increasing presence of the fast food business model in common social institutions |
| meritocracy | a bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit—proven and documented skills |
| normative or voluntary organizations | organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards |
| out-group | a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with |
| primary groups | small, informal groups of people who are closest to us |
| reference groups | groups to which an individual compares herself |
| secondary groups | larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited |
| total institution | an organization in which participants live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization occurs |
| triad | a three-member group |
| utilitarian organizations | organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need |
| control theory | theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society |
| corporate crime | crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment |
| corrections system | the system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted of, or sentenced for criminal offenses |
| court | a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law |
| crime | a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions |
| criminal justice system | an organization that exists to enforce a legal code |
| cultural deviance theory | theory that suggests conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime |
| deviance | a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms |
| differential association theory | theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance |
| formal sanctions | sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced |
| hate crimes | attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics |
| informal sanctions | sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions |
| labeling theory | the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society |
| legal codes | codes that maintain formal social control through laws |
| master status | a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual |
| negative sanctions | punishments for violating norms |
| nonviolent crimes | crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force |
| police | a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level |
| positive sanctions | rewards given for conforming to norms |
| power elite | a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources |
| primary deviance | a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others |
| sanctions | the means of enforcing rules |
| secondary deviance | occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society |
| self-report study | collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews |
| social control | the regulation and enforcement of norms |
| social disorganization theory | theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control |
| social order | an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives |
| strain theory | theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals |
| street crime | crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces |
| victimless crime | activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them |
| violent crimes | crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force |
| doing gender | when people perform tasks based upon the gender assigned to them by society and, in turn, themselves |
| double standard | concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men |
| gender identity | an individual’s sense of being either masculine or feminine |
| gender role | society’s concept of how men and women should behave |
| gender | a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female |
| homophobia | an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals |
| queer theory | a scholarly discipline that questions fixed (normative) definitions of gender and sexuality |
| sexism | the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another |
| sex | a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females |
| sexual orientation | a person’s emotional and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female) |
| sexuality | a person’s capacity for sexual feelings |
| transgender | a term that refers to individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are opposite of their biological sex |
| transsexuals | transgendered individuals who wish to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy |
| amalgamation | the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group |
| assimilation | the process by which a minority individual or group takes on the characteristics of the dominant culture |
| culture of prejudice | the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture |
| discrimination | prejudiced action against a group of people |
| dominant group | a group of people who have more power in a society than any of the subordinate groups |
| ethnicity | shared culture, which may include heritage, language, religion, and more |
| expulsion | when a dominant group forces a subordinate group to leave a certain area or even the country |
| genocide | the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group |
| intersection theory | theory that suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes |
| minority group | any group of people who are singled out from the others for differential and unequal treatment |
| model minority | the stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment |
| pluralism | represented by the ideal of the United States as a “salad bowl |
| prejudice | biased thought based on flawed assumptions about a group of people |
| racial steering | when real estate agents direct prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race |
| racism | a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that are used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others |
| scapegoat theory | suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group |
| segregation | the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions |
| social construction of race | the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable |
| stereotypes | oversimplified ideas about groups of people |
| subordinate group | a group of people who have less power than the dominant group |
| white privilege | the benefits people receive simply by being part of the dominant group |
| credentialism | the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications |
| cultural capital | cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency to help one navigate a culture |
| cultural transmission | the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture |
| education | a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms |
| formal education | the learning of academic facts and concepts |
| grade inflation | the idea that the achievement level associated with an A today is notably lower than the achievement level associated with A-level work a few decades ago |
| Head Start program | a federal program that provides academically focused preschool to students of low socioeconomic status |
| hidden curriculum | the type of nonacademic knowledge that one learns through informal learning and cultural transmission |
| informal education | learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors through participation in a society |
| No Child Left Behind Act | requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding |
| social placement | the use of education to improve one’s social standing |
| sorting | classifying students based on academic merit or potential |
| tracking | a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced, low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities |
| universal access | the equal ability of all people to participate in an education system |
Created by:
kenzey11