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SOCL FINAL

Question	Answer
antipositivism	the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values
conflict theory	a theory that looks at society as a competition for limited resources dramaturgical analysis
dynamic equilibrium	a stable state in which all parts of a healthy society are working together properly
dysfunctions	social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society
figuration	the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of an individual and the society that shapes that behavior
functionalism	a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society
function	the part a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity
grand theories	attempts to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change
latent functions	the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process
macro-level	a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society
manifest functions	sought consequences of a social process
micro-level theories	the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups
paradigms	philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them
positivism	the scientific study of social patterns
qualitative sociology	in-depth interviews, focus groups, and/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data
quantitative sociology	statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants
social facts	the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life
social solidarity	the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion
sociological imagination	the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular
sociology	is the systematic study of society and social interaction
symbolic interactionism	a theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)
theory	a proposed explanation about social interactions or society
beliefs	tenets or convictions that people hold to be true
countercultures	groups that reject and oppose society’s widely accepted cultural patterns
cultural imperialism	the deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture
cultural relativism	the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards, and not in comparison to another culture
cultural universals	patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies
culture lag	the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture’s acceptance of it
culture shock	an experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life
culture	shared beliefs, values, and practices
diffusion	the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another
discoveries	things and ideas found from what already exists
ethnocentrism	to evaluate another culture according to the standards of one’s own culture
folkways	direct appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture
formal norms	established, written rules
globalization	the integration of international trade and finance markets
high culture	the cultural patterns of a society’s elite
ideal culture	consists of the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to
informal norms	casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to
innovations	new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time
inventions	a combination of pieces of existing reality into new forms
language	a symbolic system of communication
material culture	the objects or belongings of a group of people
mores	the moral views and principles of a group
nonmaterial culture	the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society
norms	the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured
popular culture	mainstream, widespread patterns among a society’s population
real culture	the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis	people understand the world based on their form of language
sanctions	a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors
social control	a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms
society	people who live in a definable community and who share a culture
subcultures	groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society’s majority, even as the members exist within a larger society
symbols	gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture
values	a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society
xenocentrism	a belief that another culture is superior to one’s own
achieved status	the status a person chooses, such as a level of education or income
agricultural societies	societies that rely on farming as a way of life
alienation	an individual’s isolation from his society, his work, and his sense of self
anomie	a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness
ascribed status	the status outside of an individual’s control, such as sex or race
bourgeoisie	the owners of the means of production in a society
class consciousness	awareness of one’s rank in society
collective conscience	the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society
false consciousness	a person’s beliefs and ideology are in conflict with her best interests
feudal societies	societies that operate on a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection
habitualization	the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit
horticultural societies	societies based around the cultivation of plants
hunter-gatherer societies	societies that depend on hunting wild animals and gathering uncultivated plants for survival
industrial societies	societies characterized by a reliance on mechanized labor to create material goods
information societies	societies based on the production of nonmaterial goods and services
institutionalization	the act of implanting a convention or norm into society
iron cage	a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions
looking-glass self	our reflection of how we think we appear to others
mechanical solidarity	a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture
organic solidarity	a type of social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences
pastoral societies	societies based around the domestication of animals
proletariat	the laborers in a society
rationalization	a belief that modern society should be built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition
role conflict	when one or more of an individual’s roles clash
role performance	the expression of a role
role strain	stress that occurs when too much is required of a single role
role-set	an array of roles attached to a particular status
roles	patterns of behavior that are representative of a person’s social status
self-fulfilling prophecy	an idea that becomes true when acted upon
social integration	how strongly a person is connected to his or her social group
status	the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to their rank and role in society
Thomas theorem	how a subjective reality can drive events to develop in accordance with that reality, despite being originally unsupported by objective reality
anticipatory socialization	when we prepare for future life roles
degradation ceremony	the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identity and are given new ones
generalized other	the common behavioral expectations of general society
hidden curriculum	the informal teaching done in schools that socializes children to societal norms
moral development	the way people learn what is “good” and “bad” in society
nature	the influence of our genetic makeup on self-development
nurture	the role that our social environment plays in self-development
peer group	a group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests
resocialization	the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their place
self	a person’s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction
socialization	the process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values
caste system	a system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives
class system	social standing based on social factors and individual accomplishments
class traits	also called class markers, the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class
class	a group who shares a common social status based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation
conspicuous consumption	buying and using products to make a statement about social standing
Davis-Moore thesis	thesis that argues some social stratification is a social necessity
downward mobility	a lowering of one’s social class
endogamous marriages	unions of people within the same social category
exogamous marriages	unions of spouses from different social categories
global stratification	a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole
income	the money a person earns from work or investments
intergenerational mobility	a difference in social class between different generations of a family
intragenerational mobility	a difference in social class between different members of the same generation
meritocracy	an ideal system in which personal effort—or merit—determines social standing
primogeniture	a law stating that all property passes to the firstborn son
social mobility	the ability to change positions within a social stratification system
social stratification	a socioeconomic system that divides society’s members into categories ranking from high to low, based on things like wealth, power, and prestige
standard of living	the level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle
status consistency	the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual’s rank across social categories like income, education, and occupation
structural mobility	when societal changes enable a whole group of people to move up or down the class ladder
upward mobility	an increase—or upward shift—in social class
wealth	the value of money and assets a person has from, for example, inheritance
absolute poverty	the state where one is barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities
capital flight	the movement (flight) of capital from one nation to another, via jobs and resources
chattel slavery	a form of slavery in which one person owns another
core nations	dominant capitalist countries
debt accumulation	the buildup of external debt, wherein countries borrow money from other nations to fund their expansion or growth goals
debt bondage	when people pledge themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage, and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom
deindustrialization	the loss of industrial production, usually to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations where the costs are lower
dependency theory	theory which states that global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations
first world	a term from the Cold War era that is used to describe industrialized capitalist democracies
fourth world	a term that describes stigmatized minority groups who have no voice or representation on the world stage
global feminization	a pattern that occurs when women bear a disproportionate percentage of the burden of poverty
global inequality	the concentration of resources in core nations and in the hands of a wealthy minority
global stratification	the unequal distribution of resources between countries
gross national income (GNI)	the income of a nation calculated based on goods and services produced, plus income earned by citizens and corporations headquartered in that country
modernization theory	a theory that low-income countries can improve their global economic standing by industrialization of infrastructure and a shift in cultural attitudes towards work
peripheral nations	nations on the fringes of the global economy, dominated by core nations, with very little industrialization
relative poverty	the state of poverty where one is unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in the country
second world	a term from the Cold War era that describes nations with moderate economies and standards of living
semi-peripheral nations	in-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but acting as a major source of raw materials and an expanding middle class marketplace
subjective poverty	a state of poverty composed of many dimensions, subjectively present when one’s actual income does not meet one’s expectations
third world	a term from the Cold War era that refers to poor, unindustrialized countries
underground economy	an unregulated economy of labor and goods that operates outside of governance, regulatory systems, or human protections
aggregate	a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don’t interact or share a sense of identity
authoritarian leader	a leader who issues orders and assigns tasks
bureaucracies	are formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality
category	people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way
clear division of labor	refers to the fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform
coercive organizations	are organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital
conformity	the extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms
democratic leader	a leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before moving into action
dyad	a two-member group
explicit rules	the types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized
expressive function	a group function that serves an emotional need
expressive leader	a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone’s emotional wellbeing
formal organizations	large, impersonal organizations
generalizability	the amount that information from a specific example can be generalized to apply to the overall population
group	any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity
hierarchy of authority	a clear chain of command found in a bureaucracy
Iron Rule of Oligarchy	the theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration
impersonality	the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation
in-group	a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of his identity
instrumental function	being oriented toward a task or goal
instrumental leader	a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks
laissez-faire leader	a hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions
leadership function	the main focus or goal of a leader
leadership style	the style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members
McDonaldization	the increasing presence of the fast food business model in common social institutions
meritocracy	a bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit—proven and documented skills
normative or voluntary organizations	organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards
out-group	a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with
primary groups	small, informal groups of people who are closest to us
reference groups	groups to which an individual compares herself
secondary groups	larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited
total institution	an organization in which participants live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization occurs
triad	a three-member group
utilitarian organizations	organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need
control theory	theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society
corporate crime	crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment
corrections system	the system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted of, or sentenced for criminal offenses
court	a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law
crime	a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions
criminal justice system	an organization that exists to enforce a legal code
cultural deviance theory	theory that suggests conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime
deviance	a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms
differential association theory	theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance
formal sanctions	sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced
hate crimes	attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics
informal sanctions	sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions
labeling theory	the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society
legal codes	codes that maintain formal social control through laws
master status	a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual
negative sanctions	punishments for violating norms
nonviolent crimes	crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force
police	a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level
positive sanctions	rewards given for conforming to norms
power elite	a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources
primary deviance	a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others
sanctions	the means of enforcing rules
secondary deviance	occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society
self-report study	collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews
social control	the regulation and enforcement of norms
social disorganization theory	theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control
social order	an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives
strain theory	theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals
street crime	crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces
victimless crime	activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them
violent crimes	crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force
doing gender	when people perform tasks based upon the gender assigned to them by society and, in turn, themselves
double standard	concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men
gender identity	an individual’s sense of being either masculine or feminine
gender role	society’s concept of how men and women should behave
gender	a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female
homophobia	an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals
queer theory	a scholarly discipline that questions fixed (normative) definitions of gender and sexuality
sexism	the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another
sex	a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females
sexual orientation	a person’s emotional and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female)
sexuality	a person’s capacity for sexual feelings
transgender	a term that refers to individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are opposite of their biological sex
transsexuals	transgendered individuals who wish to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy
amalgamation	the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group
assimilation	the process by which a minority individual or group takes on the characteristics of the dominant culture
culture of prejudice	the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture
discrimination	prejudiced action against a group of people
dominant group	a group of people who have more power in a society than any of the subordinate groups
ethnicity	shared culture, which may include heritage, language, religion, and more
expulsion	when a dominant group forces a subordinate group to leave a certain area or even the country
genocide	the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group
intersection theory	theory that suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes
minority group	any group of people who are singled out from the others for differential and unequal treatment
model minority	the stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment
pluralism	represented by the ideal of the United States as a “salad bowl
prejudice	biased thought based on flawed assumptions about a group of people
racial steering	when real estate agents direct prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race
racism	a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that are used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others
scapegoat theory	suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group
segregation	the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions
social construction of race	the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable
stereotypes	oversimplified ideas about groups of people
subordinate group	a group of people who have less power than the dominant group
white privilege	the benefits people receive simply by being part of the dominant group
credentialism	the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications
cultural capital	cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency to help one navigate a culture
cultural transmission	the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture
education	a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms
formal education	the learning of academic facts and concepts
grade inflation	the idea that the achievement level associated with an A today is notably lower than the achievement level associated with A-level work a few decades ago
Head Start program	a federal program that provides academically focused preschool to students of low socioeconomic status
hidden curriculum	the type of nonacademic knowledge that one learns through informal learning and cultural transmission
informal education	learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors through participation in a society
No Child Left Behind Act	requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding
social placement	the use of education to improve one’s social standing
sorting	classifying students based on academic merit or potential
tracking	a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced, low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities
universal access	the equal ability of all people to participate in an education system

Created by: kenzey11

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