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MGMT 309 Exam 4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Psychological contract | the overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return |
| Person-Job fit | Extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization |
| Reasons for poor Person-Job fit | -imperfect organizational selection procedures -change in both people and organization overtime -new technologies require new employee skills -unique individuals and unique jobs |
| Individual Differences | Personal attributes that vary from one person to another (physical, psychological, or emotional) |
| Personality | the relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another |
| Big Five Personality Traites | Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Negative Emotionality |
| Agreeableness | person's ability to get along with others |
| conscientiousness | the number of goals which a person focuses (best predictor) |
| Negative Emotionality | he extent to which a person is calm, resilient, and secure |
| Extraversion | a person's comfort level with relationships |
| Openness | a person's rigidity of beliefs and range of interests |
| Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) | a popular questionnaire that some organizations use to access personality types |
| Personality types | -Extraversion versus introversion -sensing vs intuition -thinking vs feeling -judging vs perceiving |
| Locus of control | the extent to which people believe thattheir behavior has a real effect on what happens to them. |
| internal locus of control | individuals who believe that they are in control of their lives |
| External Locus of control | individuals who believe that they are not in control of their lives |
| Self-efficacy | Person's belief about his/her capabilities to perform a task |
| High self-efficacy | believe that they can perform well |
| low self-efficacy | doubt their ability to perform well |
| Authoritarianism | the extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate with hierarchical social organizations. |
| Machiavellianism | behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others |
| self-esteem | overall belief the extent to which a person believes she/he is a worthwhile individual |
| Risk Propensity | the degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions (tendency) |
| Emotional Intelligence (EQ) | the extent to which people are self-aware,can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves express empathy for others, and possess social skills |
| Self-awareness | a person's capacity for being aware of how they are feeling |
| Managing emotions | a person's capacity to ensure that feelings do not interfere with getting things accomplished |
| motivating oneself | is a person's ability to remain optimistic in the face of failure |
| Empathy | ability to understand how others are feeling. |
| Social Skills | a person's ability to get along with others. |
| Attitudes | complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people. |
| Attitudinal Components | Affective, Cognitive, intentional components |
| Affective Component | (How we feel) Feelings and emotions toward a situation |
| Cognitive Component | (Why we feel what we feel) Perceived knowledge |
| Intentional Component | (What we intend to do in the situation) Expected behavior in a given situation |
| Cognitive Dissonance | -The conflict individuals experience among their own attitudes. -The affective and cognitive components of the individual's attitude are in conflict with intended behavior. |
| Job Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction | An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified or fulfilled by his/her work. |
| Jab satisfaction and Work Behaviors | -JS if influenced by personal, groups, and organ. factors -Satisfied employees are absent less often, make positive contributions, and stay with the organ. -DS employees are out more, experience stress, and frequently look for another job |
| Organizational Commitment | An attitude that reflects an individual's identification with and attachment to an organization |
| Commitment and Work Behaviors | -Employee commitment stregthens with an idividual's age, years w/ the org, sense of job security, and participation in decision makin -Committed employees have good habits, long employment w/org, and puts more performance. |
| Positive Affectivity | (Sees the glass as 1/2 full) A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem too be in a good mood |
| Negative Affectivity | (Sees the glass as 1/2 empty) A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, tend to see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood. |
| Perception | The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information |
| Selective Perceptions | -The process of screening out info that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs. -If selective perception causes someone to ignore important information it can become quite detrimental. |
| Stereotyping | -Is the process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute (gender,race) -May cost the organization valuable talent, violate federal anti-bias laws, and it likely unethical |
| Attribution | A mechanism through which we observe behavior and attribute a cause to it. |
| Whats in which attributions are formed | Consensus, consistency, Distinctiveness |
| Consensus | The extent to which other people in the same situation behave the same way |
| Consistency | The extend to which the same person behaves the same way at different times. |
| Distinctiveness | The extent to which the same person behaves the same way in other situations. |
| Stress | A person's response to a strong stimulus (i.e. a stressor) |
| Stages of General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) | Stage 1: Alarm Stage 2: Resistance Stage 3: Exhaustion |
| Type A Personality | -extremely competitive, devoted to work, have a stong sense of time urgency -have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much as possible as quickly as possible. |
| Type B Personality | -less competitive, less devoted to work, have a weaker sense of time urgency -less likely to experience personal stress or to come into conflict with other person. -more likely to have balanced, relaxed approach to life. |
| Causes of Stress | Task demands, physical demands, role demands, interpersonal demands |
| Task demands | -Associated with the task itself. -Have to make quick decisions, critical decisions, or decisions based on inappropriate information |
| Physical Demands | -Associated with the job setting. -May have extreme temperature, poorly designed office space or threats to ones health |
| Role Demands | -Associated wit the role; may experience role ambiguity (role overload) or role conflict. |
| Interpersonal Demands | -Associated with relationships that confront people in organizations. -May result from group pressure, leadership styles or conflicting personalities. |
| Negative Consequences | Behavioral Psychological Medical |
| Burnout | A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time. |
| Managing Stress | Regular exercise, relaxation, time management, support groups |
| Creativity | The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives in existing ideas. |
| Background experience and creativity | Many creative individuals were reared in creative environments. |
| Personal Traits and Creativity | Creative persons have personal traits of openness, an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy, independence, autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a strong belief in their own creativity. |
| Characteristics of Creative People | tolerance for ambiguity; Independent thinker; not inhibited by conformity pressure; good verbal communicator; imaginative; reasonably intelligent; intrinsically motivated; hard worker; asks lots of questions; willing to take risks and fail |
| Situations that Enhance Creativity | Specific and difficult goals; time pressure; small budget; adversity; supportive culture; heterogeneity |
| Creative Process | Preparation Incubation Insight Verification |
| Preparation | -Formal education and training is used to "get up to speed." -Experiences on the job provide additional knowledge and ideas |
| Incubation | A period of less intense conscious concentration during which knowledge and ideas acquired, during reparation, mature and develop. |
| Insight | -A spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative person achieves a new understanding of some problem or situation. -Patterns of thought coalesce into a new understanding. |
| Verification | -Tests are conducted and prototypes are built to see if the insight leads to the expected results. -Determines that validity or thoughtfulness of the insights |
| Enhancing Creativity in Organization | -Making creativity a part of the organization's culture -Set goals for rev. from creative prod and services -Reward creativity; refrain from punishing creative failures -Some ideas work out as expected, others don't work out as intended. |
| Workplace Behavior | A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizations effective. |
| Performance Behavior | The total set of work-related behaviors an organization expects an individual to display |
| Withdrawl behaviors | -Absenteeism occurs when an individual does not show up for work when expected for legitimate or feigned reasons -Absenteeism may be a symptom of other work-related problems |
| Organizational Citizeship | The behavior of individuals that make a positive overall contribution |
| Motivation | -The set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways. -The goals of managers is to maximize desired behaviors and minimize undesirable behaviors. |
| Determinants of Individual Performance | -Motivation -Ability -Work Environment |
| Traditional Approach on Motivation | -Workers are interchangeable tools of production. |
| Assumptions to the Traditional approach on motivation | Managers know more than workers, economic gain (money) is the primary motivation for performance, work is inherently unpleasant. |
| The Human Relations Approach to motivation | Emphasized value of employees to organization |
| Assumptions to the human relations approach to motivation | -Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee and the organization. -Employee want to and are able to make genuine contributions. -Management's job is to encourage participation and create a work environment that motivates employees |
| Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs | -People must, in hierarchy order, satisfy five groups of needs: physiological,security,belongingness,esteem,self-actualization |
| Weakness of Maslow's theory | -Five levels of need are not always present -Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same. -Cultural differences can impact the ordering and salience of needs. |
| Contributions of Maslow's Theory | -Identified and categorized individual needs. -Emphasized importance of needs to motivation. |
| ERG Theory | Existence Needs Relatedness Needs Growth Needs |
| ERG Theory assumes that | - Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute hierarchy of needs). -If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and pursue that need (frustration-regression) |
| Two-Factor Theory | -Motivational Factors (work content) are on a continuum hat ranges from satisfaction to no satisfaction. -Hygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction. |
| Individual Human Needs | -Need for Achievement -Need for Affiliation -Need for Power |
| Need for Achievement | The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past. |
| Need for Affiliation | The desire for human companionship and acceptance. |
| Need for Power | The desire to e influential in a group and to be in control of one's environment. |
| Approaches to motivation that focus on | -Search for behavioral options and alternative -Choice of behavioral options to satisfy needs -Rewards and evaluation of satisfaction after goals are attained. |
| Expectancy Theory | Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely |
| Elements of Expectancy Theory | 1.Effort 2.Performance 3.Outcome 4.Motivated Behavior |
| Effort-to-Performance Expectancy Theory | Employee's perception of the profitable that effort will lead to a high level of performance |
| Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy Theory | Employee's perception of the probability that performance will lead to a specific outcome - the consequence or reward for behaviors in an organizational setting. |
| Valence | -Is an index of how much an individual values a particular outcome (reward). -Attractiveness of the outcome to the individual. -Attractive outcome positive valences and unattractive outcomes have negative valences. |
| What is required for motivated behavior to occur | -Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero |
| The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory | -Extension of the Expectancy theory |
| Assumptions of the Porter-Lawler Extension Expectancy Theory | -If performance results in equitable and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied. -High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction. |
| Types of rewards in the Porter-Lawler Extensions of Expectancy Theory | -Extrinsic Reward: outcomes set and awarded by external parties -Intrinsic rewards: outcomes internal to the individual |
| Equity Theory | -an individual's belief that the treatment the individual receives is relative to the treatment received by others |
| Equity Theory Assumptions | -People are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for performance. -Individuals view the value of rewards (outcomes) and inputs of effort as ratios and make subjective comparisons of themselves to other people |
| Equity Comparisons of Individual | -Feeling equitably rewarded -Feeling under-rewarded - try to reduce inequity -Feeling over-rewarded. |
| Goal-Setting Theory | -Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions. -Setting goals influences behavior in organizations. |
| Characteristics of Goals in Goal-setting theory | -Difficulty -Specificity -Acceptance -Commitment |
| Reinforcement Theory | -The role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or remain the same over time. -Assumes that behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to repeat. |
| Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations | -Positive Reinforcement -Avoidance -Punishment -Extinction |
| Reinforcement Schedules | Fixed interval Variable interval Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio |
| Fixed Interval Schedule | Reinforcement applied at fixed time intervals, regardless of behavior. |
| Variable Interval Schedule | Reinforcement applied at variable time intervals |
| Fixed Ratio Schedule | Reinforcement applied after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of time. |
| Variable Ratio Schedule | Reinforcement applied after a variable number of behaviors, regardless of time. -Hardest to manage, highest performance |
| Variable Work Schedules | -compressed work schedule -Flexible work schedule -Job Sharing -Telecommuting |
| Merit Reward Systems | Based a meaningful portion of individual compensation on merit - the relative value of an individual's contributions to the org. -Employees who make greater contributions are given higher pay than those who make lesser contributions |
| Incentive Reward System | Employee pay is based on employee output. |
| Assume that incentive reward system | -Performances is under control of individual worker. -Employee works at a single task continuously. -Pay is tightly tied to performance |
| Incentive Pay Plans | -Piece-rate systems -Sales commissions |
| None-monetary incentives | PERKS |
| Gain Sharing | is group based, and all members get bonus when predetermined levels are exceeded. Aligns employee and corporate interests. |
| Profit Sharing | provides a varying annual bonus to employees based on corporate profits. |
| Employee Stock Ownership Programs (ESOPs) | gradually grant stock ownership of the firm to employees as rewards |
| Standard Forms of Executive Compensation | -Base Salary -Incentive pay (bonuses) |
| Special forms of executive compensations | -Stock option plans -Executive Perks |
| Criticism of Executive Compensations | -Excessively large compensation amounts -Compensation not tied to overall and long-term performance of the organization -Earnings gap between executive pay and typical employee pay |
| Meaning of leadership | -a process: what leaders actually do. -a property: who leaders are. |
| Legitimate power | is granted through the organizational hierarchy |
| Reward Power | give or withhold rewards |
| Coercive Power | the capability to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat. |
| Referent Power | the personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma |
| Expert Power | is derived from the possession of information or expertise. |
| Legitimate Request | a subordinate's compliance with a manager's request because the organization has given the manager the right to make the request. |
| Instrumental Request | A subordinate complies with a manager's request to get the rewards that the manager controls. |
| Coercion | Threatening to fire, punish, or reprimand subordinates if the do not do something. |
| Rational Identification | convincing subordinates compliance is in their best interest |
| Personal Identification | using the superior's referent power to shape a subordinate's behavior |
| Inspirational Appeal | Influencing a subordinate's behavior through an appeal to a set of higher ideals or values |
| Information Distortion | withholding or distorting information (which may create an unethical situation) to influence subordinate's behavior. |
| The Great Man Approach | Intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, sociability |
| Michigan Studies | -1 word=1 continuum -2 forms of leader behavior -Job-centered/Employee centered -Can't do both at the same time |
| Ohio State Studies | -2 words=2 continuum -Initiating-structure / consideration behavior -happens at the same time |
| Situational Model of Leader Behavior assumes that | -Appropriate leader behavior depends on the situation -Situational factors that determine appropriate leader behavior can be identified. |
| Leadership Continuum | -Continuum identifies a ranges of levels of leadership from boss-centered to subordinate-center |
| Variables influences the decision-making continuum | -leadership characteristics -subordinate's characteristics -situational characteristics |
| Leadership characteristics | value system, confidence in subordinates, personal inclinations, and feelings of security |
| Subordinates' Characteristics | independence needs, readiness for responsibility, tolerance of ambiguity, interest in the problem, understanding goals, knowledge, experience, and expectations. |
| Situational Characteristics | type of organization, group effectiveness, the problem itself, and time pressures. |
| Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) | -LPC Scale asks leaders to describes the person with whom they are least able to work well. -High scale scores indicated a relationship orientations; low scores indicate a task orientation on the part of the leader |
| Situational Favorableness is determined by: | Leader-member relations Task Structure Position Power |
| Leader-Member Relation | the nature f the relationship between the leader and the work group |
| Task Structure | the degree to which the group's task is defined. |
| Position Power | the power vested in the leader's position |
| Path-Goal Theory | Primary functions -to make valued or desired rewards -to clarify behaviors for subordinates |
| Leader Behaviors (Path-Goal Theory) | directive leader Supportive Leader Participative Leader Achievement-Oriented leader |
| Vroom's Decision Tree Approach | attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a given situation |
| Decision-Making styles | decide / consult(individual) / consult(group) / Facilitate / Delegate |
| the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach | Stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates |
| Vertical Dyads | Leaders from unique independent relationships with each subordinate (dyads) in which the subordinate becomes a member of the leader's out-group or in-group |
| Substitute for leadership | a concept that identified situations in which leader behavior is neutralized or replaced by characteristics or subordinates, the task, and the organization |
| Political Behavior | the activities carried out for the specific purpose of acquiring, developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one's preferred outcomes |
| Common political behaviors | inducement/persuasion/creation of an obligation/coercion/impression management |
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