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Biology Test 4
Chapter 13+
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the two nervous divisions? | 1. peripheral nervous system 2. Central nervous system |
| CNS? | Central Nervous System- consists of the brain and spinal chord |
| PNS? | peripheral Nervous System- consists of nerves and ganglia |
| True or False: All nerves are paired? | true |
| What does the nervous system do? | Allows for communication between cells through sensory input, integration of data and motor output. |
| what are the two nerve cell types? | 1. Neuroglia 2. Neuron |
| What are the types of neurons? | 1. Sensory 2. Interneuron 3. motor |
| sensory neuron | takes impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS |
| interneuron | receives info in the CNS and sends it to a motor neuron |
| motor neuron | takes impulses from the CNS to an effector |
| what is the structure of a neuron | 1. axon 2. dendrites 3. cell body |
| axon | delivers signal away from the cell body; it sends to a dendrite of an interneuron first |
| dendrite | picks up signals toward the cell body |
| myelin sheath | A fatty white sheath made up of Schwann cells that protects conducting capacity from one nerve to another. |
| if nerves don't have a myelin sheath, then it is called what? | grey matter |
| ______ ______ along axons increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction, insulation and regeneration in the PNS | Lipid covering |
| nodes of Ranvier | gaps between myelination on axon |
| Jumping from one spot to another is called what? | Salutatory conduction |
| resting potential | when an axon is not conducting a nerve impulse |
| True or False: During resting potential there are more - ions outside than inside the membrane? | False; there are more + ions outside than inside the membrane |
| There is a - charge of _____ inside the axon | -65mV` |
| what is responsible for the ionic balance? | sodium (Na) |
| more _____ is in the inside than outside | potassium (k+) |
| plasma proteins tend to be ______ charged | negatively |
| What happens when the nerve cell is stimulated | we open up sodium gates and sodium pours into the cell, turning it from resting potential to active potential. |
| Active potential | potassium restores the state back to original position |
| Synapse | small gap between sending neuron and the receiving neuron |
| another name for a receiving neuron | postsynaptic |
| another name for a sending neuron | presynaptic |
| transmission is accomplished across this gap by what? | neurotransmitter |
| where are neurotransmitters stored? | in synaptic vessels in the axon terminals |
| presynaptic means | before the membrane |
| acetocholine | (ACH) helps the signal go from 1 neurot6ransmitter to another |
| chemical compounds that help transfer signals | 1. ACH 2. dopamine 3. serotonin |
| how does transmission work? | 1. nerve impulses reach axon terminal 2. calcium ions enter the axon terminal 3. calcium rushes in cell and pushes the vesicle to the bottom and burst the capsule releasing transmitter |
| Acetycholinesterase | enzyme that breaks stuff down and stops neurotransmission |
| what is tetanus | you can't stop the contraction of the muscles. They are stuck in contraction |
| The brain and the spinal cord are protected by the __________ | CNS |
| both brain and spinal cord are protected by 3 things | 1. bones- in skull and vertebral column 2. Meninges- wrap around CNS 3. Cerebral spinal fluid- cushions and protects CNS |
| meninges | 3 layered tough connective tissue protective membrane that covers the surface of the brain down to the spinal chord |
| Cerebral Spinal Fluid | space between meninges that's filled with fluids` |
| what are the two types of nervous tissue? | 1. white matter 2. grey matter |
| the spinal cord extends from ? | the base of the brain and along the length of the vertebral column |
| one major nerve comes in and splits into _____ and ________. | dorsal root and ventral root. |
| vertebrae is separated through what? | Highland shields |
| what are the four brain divisions? | 1. cerebrum 2. cerebellum 3. diencephalon 4. brain stem |
| what does the cerebrum control? | memory and thoughts |
| what are the four parts of the cerebrum? | frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe |
| what does the frontal lobe do? | primary motor area and conscious thought |
| Temporal lobe does what? | primary auditory, smell and speech area |
| What does the parietal lobe control? | taste area |
| occipital lobe does what? | primary visual area |
| what does the diencephalon contain? | Hypothalamus, Thalamas, and pineal gland |
| what does the hypothalamus do? | helps maintain homeostasis and controls pituitary gland |
| what does the thalamus do? | receive all sensory input except smell; and involved in memory and emotions |
| Pineal gland | Secretes melatonin that controls our daily rhythms |
| what does the cerebellum do? | receives and integrates sensory inputs from eyes, ears, joints, and muscles about the current position of the body |
| What does the brainstem contain? | 1. midbrain 2. pons 3. medulla oblongata 4. reticular formation |
| midbrain does what? | relay station between the cerebrum and spinal cord or cerebellum: reflex center |
| Pons | a bridge between the cerebellum and the CNS: regulates breathing rate: reflex center for head movements |
| Medulla oblongata | regulating breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure |
| reticular formation | regulates alertness |
| limbic systems | joins primitive emotions with higher functions such as reasoning |
| the limbic system can cause strong _______ _______ to situations but _____ ______ can override and direct our behavior. | emotional reactions: conscious thought |
| The limbic system includes | Amygdala and hippocampus |
| Amygdala | has emotional overtones |
| what does the hippocampus control? | learning and memory |
| PNS stands for? | peripheral nervous system |
| The PNS contains | includes cranial and spinal nerves and ganglia outside of the CNS |
| The spinal cords conduct impulses where? | to and from the spinal cord |
| cranial nerves conduct impulses where? | to and from the brain |
| The PNS is divided into ___ sections: Name them | 2: somatic and autonomic |
| THe somatic division | Serves the skin, skeletal muscles and tendons. |
| Automatic responses are called | reflexes |
| The autonomic division | Regulates the activity of involuntary muscles (cardiac and smooth) and glands |
| True or False: The autonomic division is set into three parts? | False; just two, sympathetic and parasympathetic |
| Sympathetic division | coordinates the body for fight or flight by speeding up metabolism, heart rate and breathing while slowing down and regulating other functions. |
| Parasympathetic division | Bringing up a relaxed state by slowing down metabolism, heart rate and breathing. |
| Nicotine | stimulant derived by tobacco and causes neurons to release dopamine; increases heart rate and blood pressure |
| Cocaine | Stimulant that results in a rush sensation and an increased sex drive, which results in hyperactivity and little desire for food and sleep |
| Cocaine mimics what? | morphine |
| Types of sensory receptors? | 1. chemoreceptors 2. photoreceptors 3. mechanoreceptors 4. thermo receptors |
| Chemoreceptors respond to what? | chemicals |
| A type of chemoreceptor that respond to chemicals released by damaged tissue | Pain receptors |
| Photoreceptors respond to what? | light energy |
| mechanoreceptors respond to ? | mechanical forces like pressure |
| thermo receptors respond to ? | temperature changes |
| what are examples of chemoreceptors? | taste cells, and olfactory cells |
| proprioceptors | mechanoreceptors involved in reflex actions that maintain muscle tone |
| taste receptors | taste sweet, salty, bitter, and sour |
| ______% of what we perceive as taste is actually smell | 80-90 |
| there are ________ taste buds mostly on the tongue | 3,000 |
| What the the two compartments of the eye? | anterior and posterior chamber |
| Anterior chamber of the eye is ? | between the cornea and lens filled with a clear fluid. |
| aqueous humor | clear fluid the lens is filled with |
| Posterior chamber of the eye is ? | Behind the lens and contains a gelatinous fluid called vitreous humor |
| the eye is made up of ____ layer(s); Name the layer(s) | 3; sclera, choroid and retina |
| sclera | mostly white and fibrous except the cornea; protects and supports the eye by maintaining its shape |
| choroid | dark, pigmented vascular middle layer that absorbs light rays that are not absorbed by the retina; |
| retina | inner layer containing photoreceptors |
| what separates the chambers of the eye? | the lens |
| fovea centralis | most acute vision, the dot in the eye that only has cone cells. |
| The farther back in the eye the more ____, the closer to the pupil the more _____. | cones; rods |
| helps contract and stretch the lens to refocus the picture for us | suspension ligaments |
| what controls our focusing? | lens |
| allows light into the eyeball | pupil |
| Cornea | transparent portion of the sclera that is important in refracting light |
| ciliary body | a structure behind the iris that contains a muscle that controls the shape of the lens and hold the lens in place |
| flexible, transparent concave structure | lens |
| as we get older the lens loses _______ and we use glasses to correct this | elasticity |
| Rods are sensitive to ____. | light |
| Cones require bright light and see ________ __ _____. | wavelengths of light (color) |
| sensory receptors from the retina form the ____ _____ that takes impulses to the brain | optic nerve |
| blind spot | where the optic nerve attaches and lacks vision |
| conjunctiva | eyelids |
| bipolar cell layer | attaches to the rod and cone cells, and contain a short cell body, axons and dendrites |
| ganglion cell layer | short dendrites and long axons that connect to the optic nerve |
| rods | 1. contain visual pigment rhodopsin 2. important for peripheral and night vision 3. Vitamin A is important |
| cones | 1. located mostly in the fovea 2. allow us to detect detail and color 3. we have red, blue and green cones. |
| iris | regulates light entrance |
| color blindness | genetic disease most common in males in which they usually cant see red or green. |
| glaucoma | fluid pressure builds up in the eye |
| astigmatism | where cornea or lens is uneven leading to a fuzzy image. |
| nearsightedness | where the eyeball is too long making it hard to see far away |
| farsightedness | eye is too short making it hard to see near objects. |
| ear function | hearing and balance |
| there are three parts of the ear | 1. outer 2. middle ear 3. inner ear |
| outer ear | functions in hearing, filled with air; includes the pinna and auditory canal |
| middle ear | functions in hearing; filled with air; includes the tympanic membrane, ossicles, and Eustachian tube. |
| inner ear | functions in hearing and balance; filled with fluid. includes the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibule |
| pinna | the external ear flap that catches sound waves |
| auditory canal | directs sound waves to the tympanic membrane; lined with fine hairs and modified sweat glands that secrete earwax |
| Tympanic membrae | eardrum- membrane that vibrates to carry the wave to the bones |
| ossicles | there are three- stapes, malleus, incus, and they amplify sound waves |
| Eustachian tube | tube that connects from the throat to the middle ear and is used to equalize pressure |
| vestibule | gravitational equilibrium with gravity |
| semicircular canals | rotational equilibrium with balance |
| cochlea | also called organ of corti; converts vibrations into nerve impulses |
| otoliths | granules suspended in fluid and when you turn they hit the cilia and cause the nerves to tell you you're tilted |
| endocrine system | comprised of glands, secretes hormones that move through the bloodstream to target cells, and results in a slow but a prolonged response |
| _______ glands are ductless glands | endocrine |
| endocrine glands manufacture what? | materials that can be diffused in the bloodstream to take them to the place in the body where the hormone works. |
| A chemical that works in a different place than where it was made, and carried by bloodstream | hormones |
| hormones are carried by ________ glands | ductless |
| exocrine glands | secrete their products into ducts that carry these products to their organs or outside the body |
| main endocrine glands | hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, pancreas, adrenal glands, parathyroid, pineal, thyroid, reproductive glands |
| what is a target cell? | cell that has a protein receptor for a certain hormone. |
| hypothalamus | master gland- sends signals to other glands to turn them on and off and regulates environment through the autonomic nervous system. |
| What can the hypothalamus control? | heartbeat, temperature, water balance, and glandular secretions |
| prostaglandins | local hormones affect neighboring cells and thus are not carried in the bloodstream |
| pheromones | chemical signals that influence the behavior of other individuals |
| peptide hormones | bind to a receptor in the plasma membrane causing the formation of cAMP which activates enzymes. |
| Steroid hormones | lipids that enter a cell and affect gene activity and thus protein synthesis |
| posterior pituitary gland | stores ADH and oxytocin which are produced by the hypothalamus |
| ADH | antidiuretic hormone; regulates water balance by reabsorbing water into the bloodstream |
| oxytocin | causes uterine contractions during childbirth and allows milk to be released during nursing |
| Anterior pituitary gland | controlled by the hypothalamic releasing and hypothalamic-inhibiting hormones |
| what are the hormones produced by the anterior pituitary? | TSH, ACTH, PRL, MSH, GH, and Gonadotropic hormone |
| TSH | Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones |
| ACTH | Adrenocorticotropic hormone; stimulates adrenal cortex to produce cortisol |
| Gonadotropic hormone | stimulates gonads to produce sex cells and hormones |
| PRL | Prolactin; stimulates mammary glands to develop and produce milk only after childbirth |
| MSH | Causes skin cells to produce melanin |
| GH | growth hormone; promotes skeletal and muscular growth |
| which hormone is affected by alcohol? | ADH |
| neurosecretory cells | nervous tissue that secrets materials into the hypothalamus |
| pituitary dwarfism | too little GH |
| gigantism | too much GH |
| acromegaly | overproduction of GH, which cause larger than normal body parts |
| thyroid gland | gland located below the larynx that produces thyroid hormone and calcitonin. |
| _______ is needed in the diet to allow the thyroid gland to produce its hormones | iodine |
| Thyroid hormone | TH- regulates metabolism |
| Calcitonin | helps lower blood Ca2+ levels by stimulating the deposition of calcium in bones. |
| goiter | thyroid enlarges because of lack of iodine |
| parathyroid glands | small glands embedded in the surface of the thyroid gland and produces PTH |
| Parathyroid hormone | PTH- promotes reabsorption of Ca2 by the kidneys |
| adrenal glands | glands that sit on top of the kidneys |
| there are ____ parts of each adrenal gland | 2; adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex |
| adrenal medulla | inner portion of the glands, the hypothalamus initiates stimulation of hormone secretion,controlled by the nervous system, and produces epinephrine and norepinephrine |
| adrenal cortex | outer portion of adrenal glands and produces long-term responses to stress. portions are controlled by ACTH from the anterior pituitary, and produce mineralocorticoids, and glucocoticoids |
| mineralocorticoids | regulate salt and water balance |
| glucocorticoids | regulates carbs, protein and fat metabolism, and suppresses the body's inflammatory response |
| ACTH works on _______ of the adrenal glands | on the outside |
| Pancreas | fish-shaped organ that's composed of two tissues: exocrine and endocrine |
| exocrine tissue of pancreas produces what? | digestive juices |
| Endocrine tissue of pancreas | Also called islets of Langerhans, produces and secretes insulin and glucagon |
| Insulin | secreted when blood glucose is high and stimulates uptake of glucose by cells |
| glucagon | secreted when blood glucose Is low and stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the liver |
| testes | gonads found in males that produce androgens |
| androgens | 1. stimulates growth of the penis and testes 2. responsible for secondary male characteristics 3. prompts larynx and vocal cords to enlarge resulting in a lower voice 4. promotes muscular strength |
| Ovaries | gonads in females that produce estrogen and progesterone |
| estrogen and progesterone | 1. stimulates growth of the vagina and uterus 2. responsible for secondary sex characteristics 3. responsible for egg maturation 4. regulates uterine cycle |
| thymus gland | lies beneath sternum, largest and most active during childhood and t-lymphocytes mature there. Secretes thymosins, which aid in differentiation of lymphocytes |
| pineal gland | located in brain, and secretes melatonin that regulates sleep cycle and sexual development |
| erythropoietin | secreted by kidneys to increase red blood cell production |
| leptin | produced by fat cells and acts on the hypothalamus to give a feeling of being satiated |
| body cells | also called somatic cells, have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs |
| cells that have pairs of chromosomes are called what? | diploid |
| sex cells | also called gametes |
| gametes | have only 23 chromosomes in their nuclei |
| cells that have only 1 of each pair of chromosomes is called what? | Haploid (N) |
| mitosis | type of duplication division in which a cell makes an exact copy of itself. Used by body cells |
| Mitosis is used when? | for growth and repair of tissues |
| meiosis | type of reduction division in which a cell halves the number of chromosomes. Used by gametes |
| Meiosis is used when? | to form egg and sperm |
| scrotum | sacs that hold the testes and helps regulate the temperature of testes |
| testes | produce sperm and male sex hormone and is composed of seminiferous tubules where the sperm is produced |
| _______ ______ produce testosterone | interstitial cells |
| epididymis | sperm mature and are stored here |
| Sertoli cells | help nourish sperm and regulate the process of sperm production(spermatogenesis) |
| three parts of sperm | 1. head-covered by cap called the acrosome which stores enzymes to penetrate the egg 2. middle piece-contains mitochondria to make ATP 3. Tail: provides movement for the sperm |
| vas deferens | drains the epididymis and transports the sperm to urethra |
| urethra | secretes excretory system and transports sperm outside the body |
| 3 glands that contribute to semen | 1. seminal vesicles 2. prostate gland 3. bulbourethral gland |
| seminal vesicles | produce sugary fluid to provide energy for sperm |
| prostate gland | produce an alkaline fluid to help buffer the acidic pH of vagina |
| bulbourethral gland | produce mucus that acts as lubricant in urethra |
| GnRH | secreted by the thalamus to control release of other hormones |
| FSH | promotes production of sperm |
| LH | controls the production of testosterone |
| Testosterone | Important for normal development and functioning of the male reproductive organs |
| what cells produce testosterone? | interstitial cells |
| what inhibits production of FSH and GnRH to regulate testosterone? | testosterone |
| ovaries | produce eggs and sex hormones |
| oviducts | moves eggs and normal site of fertilization |
| uterus | normal site of implantation and fetal development |
| cervix | opening to the uterus that can dilate during childbirth |
| vagina | birth canal and the copulatory organ of the female |
| fimbriae | finger like projections on the oviduct |
| endometrium | inside the uterine wall |
| primary follicles | never increase in number and one develops each month. |
| True or False: 300-400 will be all that develops and begins at puberty | true |
| at puberty a female has _______-_______ follicles | 300,000 to 400,000 |
| menopause | end of ovarian and uterine cycles |
| _____ _______ produces the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone | corpus luteum |
| progesterone | acts on uterus and keeps the walls thick and highly granular |
| The ovarian cycle | Formation and release of an immature egg that controlled by GnRH. There are two phases 1. follicular phase and Luteal phase |
| Follicular phase | FSH promotes the development of a follicle that secretes estrogen, then An estrogen spike leads to a surge in LH and ovulation around day 14 in the 28-day cycle |
| Luteal phase | LH promotes the development of the corpus luteum that functions to secrete progesterone |
| Uterine cycle (28 days) | 1. day 1-5; low level of estrogen and progesterone causing the inner uterine lining (endometrium) to disintegrate and menstruation occurs 2. day 6-13;(proliferative phase)increase in estrogen causing the endometrium to thicken day 14- ovulation |
| uterine cycle after day 14 | day 15-28; (secretory phase): increase in progesterone causes endometrium to double or triple in thickness in preparation for the developing embryo. If the egg is not fertilized then the corpus luteum regresses and the endometrium breaks down |
| during the uterine cycle there is what? | very rich blood supply, a lot of mucus cells, and very thick walls |
| fertilization | union of a sperm and egg nucleus normally in the oviduct to form a zygote |
| pregnancy | begins with implantation usually 6 days after fertilization |
| the egg is surrounded by an outer matrix called ? | zona of pellucida |
| morula | a compact ball of embryonic cells; what pops into the uterus and implants on the uterine wall |
| blastula | forms inside the morula and implants on the uterine wall and grows into the endometrial lining |
| blastula is also called what? | trophoblast |
| early chorion | produces its own hormones to keep the endometrium from sloughing it off. |
| spermatogenesis | spermatocyte stem cells --> meiosis (splits into two)-->meiosis 2 (splits into four) |
| Differences in male and female sex cells | Female- large and doesn't move on it's own male- very small and highly mobile |
| heterogametes | different in form, structure and movement |
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