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Bio exam no.2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are three characteristics of all animals? | They are multicellular eukaryotes, are heterotrophic (ingests food), and have no cell walls |
| What is the closest living relative of animals? | choanoflagellates |
| What are three effects caused by the Cambrian Explosion? | the first predator-prey relations arose, there was a rise in atmospheric oxygen, and the evolution of the Hox gene emerged (which function in patterning the body axis) |
| Arthropods were on land ___ million years ago | 460 million |
| Vertebrates were on land ___ million years ago | 360 million |
| Mesozoic Era was ___ million years ago | 251 to 65 million |
| The Mesozoic Ere was also know as the... | Age of the dinosaurs |
| Name three things that emerged during the Mesozoic Era. | The first coral reefs appeared, the first mammals appeared, and the first flowering plants appeared. |
| What did the first flowering plants cause? | diversification of insects |
| During the Mesozoic Era, there was a mass extinction in the end. What was the cause of this extinction? | A meteor |
| Cenozoic Era is ___ million years ago to the present | 65 million |
| During the Cenozoic Era, mammals... | occupied niches left by extinct large dinosaurs |
| During the Cenozoic Era, _______ evolved | humans |
| What are the different types of symmetry the body of an animal can have? | bilateral symmetry and radial symmetry |
| Name three tissue layers | ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm |
| Ectoderm | tissue layer on outside of animal |
| Mesoderm | tissue layer between endoderm and ectoderm |
| Endoderm | tissue layer lining digestive tract |
| Diploblastic | animal that only has endoderm and ectoderm |
| Triploblastic | animal that has all three layers |
| What are the three types of body cavities? | acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, and coelomate |
| Acoelomate | an animal without a body cavity |
| Pseudocoelomate | has a body cavity between mesoderm and endoderm |
| Coelomate | has a body cavity surrounded by mesoderm (a true coelom) |
| Embryonic development: Protostome | mouth develops from blastopore, spiral and determinate cleavage |
| Embryonic development: Deuterotostome | anus develops from blastopore, radial and indeterminate cleavage |
| Animal Phyla: Sponges are _____ animals | basal |
| Animal Phyla: What is the difference between Eumetazoans and Parazoans? | Eumetazoans are animals that have true tissues and Parazoans are animals that lack true tissues, such as sponges. |
| Animal Phyla: Bilateria includes | all animals with bilateral symmetry |
| Animal Phyla: Deuterostomia includes | echinoderms and chordates |
| Animal Phyla: Protostomes have been divided into ___________ and ________________ | Ecdysozoans and Lophotrochozoans |
| Animal Phyla: What do Sponges(porifera) lack? | Lack true tissues and symmetry |
| Animal Phyla: Sponges are __________ _______ which means they filter food from water | Suspension feeders |
| Animal Phyla: Are sponges Eumetazoan or parazoan? | Parazoan because they lack true tissues |
| Animal Phyla: What type of symmetry do sponges have? | none. Sponges lack symmetry |
| Animal Phyla: What "level of organization" are sponges considered? | Cellular (lack tissues and organs) |
| Animal Phyla: What type of body cavity do sponges have? | none |
| Animal Phyla: What are some examples of Cnidarians? | jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals |
| Animal Phyla: Are Cnidarians eumetazoan or parazoan? | Eumetazoan because they have true tissue |
| Animal Phyla: What type of symmetry do cnidarians have? | radial symmetry |
| Animal Phyla: What "level of organization" are cnidarians considered? | Tissue (lack organs) |
| Animal Phyla: Describe a cnidarian physical characteristics | Sac-like body with one opening leading to gastrovascular cavity, surrounded by tentacles |
| Animal Phyla: Polyp cnidarians | sessile form (immobile form)which attaches to the sea floor and often forms large colonies. |
| Animal Phyla: Polyp cnidarians include... | corals, hydras, and sea anemones. |
| Animal Phyla: Medusa cnidarians | free-swimming form which consists of an umbrella-shaped body (called a bell), a fringe of tentacles that hang from the edge of the bell, a mouth opening located on the underside of the bell, and a gastrovascular cavity. |
| Animal Phyla: Medusa cnidarians include... | jellyfish |
| Animal Phyla: Cnidarians have nematocysts. What are nematocysts? | coiled hollow thread of a cnidarian. Upon contact with intruder it can be extruded to snare prey or penetrate epidermis of predator, releasing a toxin. |
| Animal Phyla: Lophotrochozoans | a major grouping of protostome animals |
| Animal Phyla: Are Lophotrochozoans eumetazoan or parazoan? | Eumetazoan because they have true tissue |
| Animal Phyla: What type of symmetry do Lophotrochozoans have? | bilateral symmetry |
| Animal Phyla: What "level of organization" are Lophotrochozoans considered? | Organs |
| Animal Phyla: What are three phylums of Lophotrochozoans? | Platyhelminthes, Mollusca, and Annelida |
| Animal Phyla: Phylum Platyhelminthes | flatworms |
| Animal Phyla: Are flatworms coelomates, pseudocoelomates, or acoelomates? | acoelomates |
| Animal Phyla: What are some examples of flatworms? | planarians, trematodes, flukes, and tapeworms |
| Animal Phyla: flat worm- planarian | non-parasitic flatworms |
| Animal Phyla: flat worm- trematodes and flukes | a parasitic flatworm (internal parasites of mollusks and vertebrates.) |
| Animal Phyla: flat worm- tapeworms | a parasitic flatworm, the adult of which lives in the intestine of humans and other vertebrates. |
| Animal Phyla: Phylum Mollusca | soft-bodied animals sometimes protected by a hard outer shell |
| Animal Phyla: Are mollusks coelomates, pseudocoelomates, or acoelomates? | coelomates |
| Animal Phyla: Describe some physical characteristics of phylum mollusca | Muscular foot for movement, visceral mass containing internal organs, and mantle that secretes shell, many also have radula |
| Animal Phyla: What are some examples of mollusks? | Chitons, Gastropods, Bivalves, and Cephalopods |
| Animal Phyla: Mollusks- chitons | rock-dwelling marine mollusks with oval shaped bodies that are flattened from back to front and are mainly found in shallow water |
| Animal Phyla: Mollusks- Gastropods | commonly known as snails and slugs, and are the largest group of mollusks |
| Animal Phyla: Mollusks- Bivalves | marine and freshwater mollusks with laterally compressed bodies enclosed by a shell in two hinged parts. (clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, etc) |
| Animal Phyla: Mollusks- Cephalopods | exclusively marine animals characterized by a prominent head, and a set of arms or tentacles (octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish) |
| Animal Phyla: Phylum Annelida | segmented worms |
| Animal Phyla: Are segmented worms coelomates, pseudocoelomates, or acoelomates? | coelomates |
| Animal Phyla: What are some examples of annelids? | marine worms, earthworms, leeches |
| Animal Phyla: Annelids- Marine worms | Any worm that lives in a marine environment, they have specialized tentacles used for exchanging oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide |
| Animal Phyla: Annelids- Earthworms | tube-shaped and commonly found living in soil, they feed on live and dead organic matter. |
| Animal Phyla: Annelids- leeches | blood suckers that feed on blood from vertebrate and invertebrate animals |
| Animal Phyla: Ecdycozoans | characterized by morphological characters, includes all animals that shed their exoskeleton |
| Animal Phyla: What kind of symmetry do Ecdyozoans have? | bilateral |
| Animal Phyla: Are Ecdyozoans protosomes or deuterostomes? | protostomes |
| Animal Phyla: What are the two phyla of Ecdycozoans? | Nematodes and arthropods |
| Animal Phyla: Are Nematodes coelomates, pseudocoelomates, or acoelomates? | pseudocoelomates |
| Animal Phyla: Nematodes are not ______, they have cylindrical bodies. | segmented |
| Animal Phyla: What are examples of Nematodes? | they are also called "roundworms" and can be free-living, or parasites of animals, or parasites of plants (major agricultural pests) |
| Animal Phyla: What are some physical characteristics of arthropods? | segmented bodies, hard exoskeleton, and jointed appendages |
| Animal Phyla: What are four different types of arthropods? | Chelicerata, Myriapoda, Hexapoda, and Crustacea |
| Animal Phyla: What are some examples of Chelicerata? | spiders, scorpions, and ticks |
| Animal Phyla: What are some examples of Myriapoda? | centipedes and millipedes |
| Animal Phyla: What are some examples of Hexapoda? | insects |
| Animal Phyla: What are some examples of Crustacea? | krill, barnacles, pillbugs, crabs, lobsters, and shrimp |
| Animal Phyla: _______ are the most successful group of animals | Hexapoda (insects) |
| Animal Phyla: Most Hexapoda animals have _____ | wings |
| Animal Phyla: Echinoderms | a phylum of marine animals including sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, and sea cucumbers. |
| Animal Phyla: Are echinoderms protostomes or deuterostomes? | deuterostomes |
| Animal Phyla: What type of symmetry do echinoderms have? | Larvae are bilaterally symmetrical, but adults develop secondary radial symmetry |
| Animal Phyla: Echinoderms are ______ animals | sessile or slow-moving |
| Animal Phyla: What are some physical characteristics of Echinoderms? | Water vascular system with tube feet, and an endoskeleton of hard calcareous plates |
| Animal Phyla: What are some characteristics of Chordates? | Notochord, Post-anal tail, Hollow dorsal nerve chord, and Pharyngeal slits |
| Animal Phyla: Are chordates protostomes or deuterostomes? | deuterostomes |
| Animal Phyla: What are two non-vertebrate chordates? | Lancelets and Tunicates |
| Animal Phyla: Lancelets | fish-like marine chordates with a global distribution in shallow seas, usually found half-buried in sand |
| Animal Phyla: Why are lancelets important? | They are an object of study in zoology as they provide indications about the origins of the vertebrates. |
| Animal Phyla: Tunicates | marine invertebrate animal |
| Vertebrates: what are Craniates | Chordates with a cranium |
| Vertebrates: Myxini are an example of craniates. What are they? | hagfishes. They have a cranium but no vertebrae or jaws, they are all marine scavengers and secrete huge amounts of slime as a defense |
| Vertebrates: | Craniates with a backbone |
| Vertebrates: Petromyzontida are am example of vertebrates. What are they? | Lancelets. They are vertebrates that don’t have jaws, a skeleton made of cartilage, and are parasitic on fish |
| Vertebrates: Gnathostomes | Vertebrates that have jaws |
| Vertebrates: What did the jaws of gnathostomes probably evolve from? | gill support rods |
| Vertebrates: What are some characteristics of Gnathostomes? | A lateral line system and paired fins |
| Vertebrates: What is the purpose of a lateral line system that Gnathostomes have? | to sense vibrations in the water |
| Vertebrates: What is the purpose of paired fins that Gnathostomes have? | to help in locomotion |
| Vertebrates: What are some examples of Gnathostomes? | Placoderms and Chondrichthyans |
| Vertebrates: Chondrichthyans include | sharks, skates, and rays |
| Vertebrates: Placoderms | extinct group of armor-plated fish |
| Vertebrates: Osteichthyes | Gnathostomes with bony skeletons |
| Vertebrates: Osteichthyes includes | ray-finned fish, lobe-finned fish, and tetrapods |
| Vertebrates: Aquatic species have operculum. What is an operculum? | the hard bony flap covering and protecting the gills. |
| Vertebrates: Aquatic species have a swim bladder. How does this help them? | also called air bladder, a buoyancy organ enabling the fish to maintain its depth without floating upward or sinking |
| Vertebrates: Most fish are _______ fish | Ray-finned fish |
| Vertebrates: What does it mean to be a lobe-finned fish? | Bones and muscle in their fins |
| Vertebrates: What are a few examples of lobe-finned fish? | Coelocanths and lungfish |
| Vertebrates: Tetrapods | Osteichthyians that have limbs |
| Vertebrates: What did Tetrapods evolve from about 360 million years ago? | lobe-finned fish |
| Vertebrates: What is a physical characteristic of tetrapods? | 4 limbs with digits |
| Vertebrates: Tetrapods include... | amphibians (Frogs, salamanders, and caecillians) |
| Vertebrates: Amphibians usually have _______ larvae and ________ adults | aquatic, terrestrial (must lay eggs in water) |
| Vertebrates: Amniotes | Tetrapods with a shelled egg (two groups living today: reptiles and mammals) |
| Vertebrates: What are three characteristics of amniotes? | an amniotic egg, a rib cage, and less permeable skin |
| Vertebrates: What does an amniotic egg allow? | allows eggs to survive on land without drying out |
| Vertebrates: What is the rib cage used for? | used to ventilate lungs more efficiently |
| Vertebrates: What is the advantage of less permeable skin? | allows amniotes to live in dry environments |
| Vertebrates: What is an example of an amniote? | Reptiles! |
| Vertebrates: What are some physical characteristics of reptiles? | Scales to protect skin and all living reptiles except birds are ectothermic (birds are endothermic) |
| Vertebrates: What are the two main branches of reptiles? | Testudines and Diapsids |
| Vertebrates: Testudines include... | turtles and tortoises |
| Vertebrates: What does diapsid mean? | a group of tetrapods that developed two holes in each side of their skulls |
| Vertebrates: What are two groups of diapsids? | Lepidosaurs and archosaurs |
| Vertebrates: Lepidosaurs include... | tuataras, lizards and snakes(Squamates) |
| Vertebrates: Archosaurs include... | crocodiles, dinosaurs, and birds |
| Vertebrates: What does Archosauria mean? | “ruling reptiles” |
| Vertebrates: What did birds evolve from? | |
| Vertebrates: What anatomical features do birds have that are used for flight? | feathers, air sacs, reduced organs, lightweight skeleton, and sternum to anchor flight muscles |
| Vertebrates: How do birds compare to other land vertebrates when considering their numbers? | More bird species than any other land vertebrate |
| Mammals: | Amniotes with mammary glands and hair (endothermic) |
| Mammals: Mammals evolved from an ancestor called ________. | Synapsids (all other synapsids other than mammals are extinct) |
| Mammals: What are a few physical characteristics of synapsids? | Unique jaw structure, and differentiated teeth |
| Mammals: What are the three major lineages of mammals? | Monotremes, Marsupials, and Eutherians |
| Mammals: Monotremes | mammals that lay eggs |
| Mammals: Marsupials | young are kept in pouch where they complete development |
| Mammals: Eutherians | have placentas (young are born much more developed) -this includes most of mammals |
| Mammals: Primates are one group of eutherians. What are five characteristics of primates? | ◦ Large brain, short jaws, binocular vision, opposable thumbs, and complex social behavior |
| Primates: What are the three groups of living primates? | Prosimians, Tarsiers, and Simians (anthropoids) |
| Primates: What do Prosimians resemble? | early primates |
| Primates: What are some examples of Prosimians? | lemurs, lorises, and pottos |
| Primates: Tarsiers | have characteristics of both prosimians and anthropoids |
| Primates: What are some characteristics of Tarsiers? | Insectivorous, nocturnal, and are native to Southeast Asia |
| Primates: Simians (anthropoids) | Monkeys and apes |
| Primates: (Simians) Where do new world monkeys live? | in South America |
| Primates:(Simians) Where do old world monkeys live? | in Africa and Asia |
| Primates: New World Monkeys and Old World Monkeys diverged about __ million years ago | 25 |
| Primates: Apes diverged from ___ _____ Monkeys about 20 million years ago | Old World |
| Primates: Compare Apes and monkeys | Apes are larger than monkeys and have no tail |
| Apes: Gibbons | Sometimes called “lesser apes" |
| Apes: Where are all Gibbons native to? | |
| Apes: What are some examples of Great Apes(Hominidae)? | Orangutans, Gorillas, Chimpanzees, and Humans |
| Hominins: | Apes with bipedal locomotion |
| Hominins: Australopiths | walked upright but still have chimp-sized brains |
| Hominins: What are the two types of australopiths and their characteristics? | Robust –had large jaws, probably for a herbivorous diet Gracile –smaller jaws, probably a more omnivorous diet |
| Hominins: Homo | our genus, with larger brains |
| Hominins: Homo erectus | first hominin to spread out of Africa |
| Hominins: Homo neanderthalensis | lived in Europe and Middle East during the Ice Age, well adapted to the cold, interbred with modern humans |
| Hominins: Homo sapiens | originated in Africa and spread out about 115,000 years ago |
| Animal Tissues: What are the four basic types of animal tissue? | Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous |
| Animal Tissues: Epithelial tissue | covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body |
| Animal Tissues: How can we classify epithelial tissue? | by the shape and arrangement of the epithelial cells |
| Animal Tissue: What are three shapes epithelial tissue can be? | Cuboidal (like dice) Columnar (like bricks on end) Squamous (like floor tiles) |
| Animal Tissue: The arrangement of epithelial cells may be | Simple (single cell layer) Stratified (multiple tiers of cells) Pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of varying length) |
| Animal Tissue: What are some examples of epithelial tissue? | skin, intestinal lining, kidney tubule, esophagus, and the trachea |
| Animal Tissue: Connective tissue | contains cells embedded in a proteinaceous matrix that was secreted by the cells; joins one tissue to another |
| Animal Tissue: What are some examples of connective tissue? | cartilage, bone, tendon, adipose, and blood |
| Animal Tissue: Muscle Tissue | Consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals |
| Animal Tissue: Muscle Tissue is divided in the vertebrate body into three types. What are these three types? | Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac |
| Animal Tissue: What is Skeletal Muscle (striated muscle) responsible for? | voluntary movement |
| Animal Tissue: What is Smooth Muscle responsible for? | involuntary body activities |
| Animal Tissue: What is Cardiac Muscle responsible for? | contraction of the heart |
| Animal Tissue: Nervous Tissue | Senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal |
| Animal Tissue: What do nervous tissue contain? | Neurons and glial cells |
| Animal Tissue: What is the function of neurons | (or nerve cells) transmits nerve impulses |
| Animal Tissue: What is the function of glial cells | (or neuroglia) helps nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons |
| Animal Tissue: What is an example of nervous tissue? | spinal chord |
| Homeostasis | system in which variables are regulated so that internal conditions remain stable and relatively constant |
| Homeostasis: Regulators | keep a certain variable stable in their bodies (homeostasis) |
| Homeostasis: Conformers | allows internal variable to conform to conditions outside |
| Homeostasis: What do negative feedback loops do? | keep a certain variable at a setpoint |
| Homeostasis: Acclimatization | changes in an animal’s body to adjust to changes in environment |
| Homeostasis: Thermoregulation | the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range |
| Homeostasis: Endotherms | animals that generate heat by metabolism (birds and mammals) |
| Homeostasis: Ectotherms | animals that gain heat from external sources (most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, etc) |
| Homeostasis: Poikilotherm | body temperature varies with its environment |
| Homeostasis: Homeotherm | temperature stays relatively constant |
| Homeostasis: What are five ways an animal regulates its temperature? | Insulation Circulatory adaptations Evaporative cooling Behavioral thermoregulation Adjusting metabolic heat production |
| Temperature regulation: Insulation | Used by mammals and birds. Skin, feathers, fur, and blubber reduce heat flow between animal and its environment |
| Temperature regulation: Circulatory adaptations | regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly affects thermoregulation |
| Temperature regulation: Circulatory adaptation-vasodilation | blood flow in the skin increases, facillitating heat loss |
| Temperature regulation: Circulatory adaptation-vasoconstriction | blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss |
| Temperature regulation: Circulatory adaption- countercurrent exchange | transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions (extremities of aquatic mammals and birds) |
| Temperature regulation: Evaporative cooling includes... | sweating, bathing, and panting |
| Temperature regulation: Behavioral responses include | basking in sun to warm up and seeking shade to cool down. |
| Temperature regulation: Metabolic heat production | adjusting rate of metabolic heat production (heat production increased by moving or shivering) |
| Temperature regulation: Acclimation | varying insulation to acclimatize to seasonal temperature change (birds and mammals) |
| Metabolic Rate and Energy Use: Bioenergetics | overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal |
| Metabolic Rate and Energy Use: Metabolic rate | sum of all the energy requiring biochemical reactions over a give time interval |
| Metabolic Rate and Energy Use: Basal Metabolic Rate | the minimum metabolic rate of a nongrowing endotherm that is at rest, has an empty stomach, and is not experiencing stress; the equivalent for an ectotherm is its Standard Metabolic Rate |
| Metabolic Rate and Energy Use: Large animals tend to have a _____ metabolic rate per gram of body mass than smaller animals | lower |
| Metabolic Rate and Energy Use: Energy budgets | different species of animals allocate different % of their energy to BMR, reproduction, thermoregulation, growth, activity |
| Torpor | a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases |
| Torpor: Hibernation | an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity |
| Torpor: Estivation | (summer torpor) enable animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water supplies |
| What are the three modes of nutrition? | Herbivores, Carnivores, and Omnivores |
| nutrition: Herbivores | eat mainly autotrophs (plants and algae) |
| nutrition: Carbivores | eat other animals |
| nutrition: Omnivores | regularly consume animals as well as plants |
| What are the five components of an animals diet? | Chemical energy for ATP production Essential Amino Acids Essential Fatty Acids Vitamins Minerals |
| Where is the chemical energy for ATP production obtained? | usually obtained from carbohydrates and fats |
| A diet that provides insufficient essential amino acids causes malnutrition called ______ _______. | protein deficiency |
| What three things provide all the essential amino acids and are thus "complete" proteins? | meat, eggs, and cheese |
| Vitamins are grouped into two categories. What are they? | Water-soluble and fat-soluble |
| Minerals | Inorganic chemicals needed by body in small amounts |
| Give four examples of minerals and what they're needed for | Calcium and Phosphorus needed to build bones, Potassium and Sodium needed for nerve function, Iron needed for hemoglobin in blood, and Iodine needed for thyroid hormones |
| Undernourishment | results from diet that consistently supplies less chemical energy than the body requires |
| Malnourishment | the long-term absence from the diet of one or more essential nutrients. |
| What are the 4 stages of food processing? | Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination |
| Food processing: Ingestion | getting food into your body |
| Food processing: Digestion | breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb (soluble) |
| Food processing: Absorption | uptake of nutrients by body cells |
| Food processing: Elimination | passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment |
| Ingestion: what are four kinds of "feeders"? | suspension feeders, substrate feeders, fluid feeders, and bulk feeders |
| Ingestion: suspension feeders | filter food particles from the water |
| Ingestion: substrate feeders | live on or inside their food source |
| Ingestion: fluid feeders | suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living plant or animal host |
| Ingestion: bulk feeders | swallow large pieces of food |
| Digestion: mechanical digestion | breaking up food into smaller pieces |
| Digestion: chemical digestion | process of enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in molecules with the addition of water |
| Digestive organs: gastrovascular cavity | a point in most organisms at which both the digestion and distribution of nutrients occurs. |
| Digestive organs: Organisms with gastrovascular cavity include... | Cnidarians and flat worms |
| Digestive organs: alimentary canal | A digestive tuve with two openings, a mouth and an anus (more complex animals) |
| Digestive organs: alimentary canal can have specialized regions that... | carry out digestion and absorption in a stepwise fashion |
| Mammalian digestive system consists of... | an alimentary canal and accessory glands that secrete digestive juices through ducts |
| What are the mammalian accessory glands? | salivary glands, pancreas, live, and gallbladder |
| Mammalian digestive organs: Oral cavity | the mouth |
| Mammalian digestive organs: What is the function of the oral cavity? | It is where the first stage of digestion takes place |
| Mammalian digestive organs: Esophagus | a muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. |
| Mammalian digestive organs: Food is pushed along by rhythmic contractions of muscles called _______ | peristalsis |
| Mammalian digestive organs: Stomach | Muscular organ that stores food and secretes gastric juice, which converts a meal to acidic chyme |
| Mammalian digestive organs: What prevents chyme from entering the esophagus and regulates its entry into the small intestine? | sphincters |
| Mammalian digestive organs: small intestine | The longest section of the alimentary canal and is the major organ of digestion |
| Mammalian digestive organs: small intestine- duodenum | the first portion of the small intestine, where acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself |
| Mammalian digestive organs: small intestine- most digestion occurs in the duodenum. the _______ and ______ function mainly in absorption of nutrients and water | jejunum and ileum |
| Mammalian digestive organs: small intestine- jejunum | midsection of the small intestine that is specialized for absorption |
| Mammalian digestive organs: small intestine- ileum | the final and longest segment of the small intestine that helps digest whatever has not been absorbed already |
| Mammalian digestive organs: Pancreas | a digestive organ that secretes protein-digesting enzymes that assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. |
| Mammalian digestive organs: What are the two protein-digesting enzymes secreted by the pancreas? | proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin (neutralizes acidic chyme) |
| Mammalian digestive organs: Liver | Organ that produces bile |
| Mammalian digestive organs: Bile | green substance that emulsifies fatty acids so they can be absorbed by the body |
| Mammalian digestive organs: Large intestine (colon) | organ connected to the small intestine that absorbs any water left in indigestible food, and passes any unused waste from the body. |
| Dental adaptations: shape of teeth depends on the diet. Compare carnivores and herbivores dental adaptations | carnivores have more pointed teeth while herbivores teeth are flatter |
| Compare the intestines of carnivores and herbivores | herbivores have longer alimentary canals than carnivores. This reflects the longer time needed to digest vegetation |
| Compare the stomachs of carnivores and herbivores | Many herbivores have fermentation chambers, where symbiotic microorganisms digest cellulose. Carnivores do not |
| Carbohydrate storage: animals store excess calories primarily as glycogen in the... | liver and muscles |
| Fat storage: Energy is secondarily stored as fat cells in the... | adipose tissue |
| Appetite and energy storage is controlled by _______ released by digestive system organs | hormones |
| Hormones: Ghrelin | makes you feel hungry |
| Hormones: Leptin | makes you feel full and satisfied |
| Circulatory system: | responsible for transporting materials throughout the entire body. It transports nutrients, water, and oxygen to your billions of body cells |
| Circulatory system: gastrovascular cavity | simple animals (cnidarians and flat worms) have this cavity that functions in both digestion and distribution of substances throughout the body |
| Circulatory system: More complex animals have either open or closed circulatory systems. Both systems have three basic components. What are they? | Circulatory fluid(blood), set of tubes(vessels), and a muscular pump(heart) |
| Circulatory system: Open circulatory system | there is no distinction between between blood and interstitial fluid. |
| Circulatory system: This general body fluid is called ________. | hemolymph |
| Circulatory system: What some examples of animals with open circulatory system? | insects, other arthropods, and most mollusks |
| Circulatory system: Closed circulatory system | blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid. |
| Circulatory system: Which is more efficient at transporting circulatory fluids to tissues and cells? open or closed systems? | closed systems |
| vertebrate circulatory system: Humans and other vertebrates have a _____ circulatory system, often called the cardiovascular system | closed |
| vertebrate circulatory system: What are the three main types of blood vessels? | arteries, veins, and capillaries |
| vertebrate circulatory system: capillary beds | sites of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid |
| vertebrate circulatory system: What do Venules do? | converge into veins and return blood from capillaries to the heart |
| vertebrate circulatory system: How many chambers do vertebrate hearts have? | two or more |
| vertebrate circulatory system: single circulation | blood leaving the heart passes through two capillary beds before returning |
| vertebrate circulatory system: What are three examples of animals that have a single circulation with two-chambered heart? | bony fishes, rays, and sharks |
| vertebrate circulatory system: Double circulation | oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood are pumped separately from the right and left sides of the heart |
| vertebrate circulatory system: What are three examples of animals that have double circulation? | amphibians, reptiles, and mammals |
| vertebrate circulatory system: In reptiles and mammals, oxygen-poor blood flows through the _______ ______ to pick up oxygen through the lungs | pulmonary circuit |
| vertebrate circulatory system: In amphibians, oxygen-poor blood flows through the ________________ ______ to pick up oxygen through the lungs and skin | pulmocutaneous circuit |
| vertebrate circulatory system: Oxygen-rich blood delivers oxygen through the _______ _______ | systemic circuit |
| vertebrate circulatory system: Which maintains higher blood pressure in the organs, double or single circulation? | double circulation |
| vertebrate circulatory system: Amphibians and most reptiles have a ____ chambered heart with ___ atria and ___ ventricle | three, two, one |
| vertebrate circulatory system: Crocodiles, birds, and mammals have a ___ chambered heart with ___ atria and ___ ventricles, oxygenated blood and de-oxygenated blood are kept separate | four, two ,two |
| vertebrate circulatory system: Sinoatrial (SA) node | pacemaker, sets the rate and timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract |
| Blood vessels: what is the function of arteries? | deliver oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the tissues of the body. |
| Blood vessels: what is the function of veins? | transports blood from various regions of the body to the heart. |
| Blood vessels: what is the function of capillaries? | forma the connection between veins and arteries (smallest blood vessel) |
| Blood pressure: | hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel |
| Blood pressure: Systolic pressure | pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole (highest pressure in the arteries) |
| Blood pressure: Diastolic pressure | pressure in the arteries during diastole (lower than systolic pressure) |
| Blood pressure: diastole | the period of time when the heart refills (resting period) |
| Blood pressure: Vasoconstriction | the contraction of smooth muscle in arteriole walls (increases blood pressure) |
| Blood pressure: Vasodilation | the relaxation of smooth muscles in the arterioles (decreases blood pressure) |
| What is the function of the Lymphatic system? | returns fluid that leaks out in the capillary beds (aids in defense) |
| Blood | specialized connective tissue |
| Blood components: Plasma | a liquid matrix that holds blood cells |
| Blood components: What are the three cellular elements? | erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets |
| Blood components: erthrocytes | red blood cells that transport oxygen |
| Blood components: leukocytes | white blood cells that functions in defense |
| Blood components: Platelets | fragments of cells that are involved in clotting |
| Blood components: ______ and ______ are suspended in blood plasma | erythrocytes and leukocytes |
| When the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, the clotting mechanism begins. How does blood clotting work? | a cascade of complex reactions converts fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot |
| A blood clot formed within a blood vessel is called a ________. | thrombus (can block blood flow) |
| cardiovascular disease: | disorder of the heart and the blood vessels (account for more than half of deaths in US) |
| cardiovascular disease: atherosclerosis | caused by the buildup of plaque deposits within arteries |
| Cholesterol is a major contributor to atherosclerosis. What are the two kinds? | Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) |
| Cholesterol: Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) are associated with... | plaque formation (bad cholesterol) |
| Cholesterol: High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) | removes LDL (good cholesterol) |
| Cholesterol: ______ _______seems to be related to HDL/LDL ratio | Heart disease |
| What are the dangers of Hypertension (high blood pressure)? | promotes atherosclerosis and increases risk of heart attack and stroke |
| Gas exchange: Partial Pressure | the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gasses. |
| Gas exchange: Respiratory media | Air or water used as a source of oxygen |
| Gas exchange: Why do animals require large, moist Respiratory surfaces? | for exchange of gases between their cells and the respiratory medium (air or water) |
| What has more oxygen, air or water? | air |
| create large surface area for gas exchange | |
| Respiratory surfaces: Gills use a ___________ exchange system | countercurrent (blood flows in opposite direction to water passing over gills) |
| Gas exchange: What kind of system do insects use for gas exchange? | tracheal system |
| Gas exchange: The Tracheal system of insects | consists of tiny branching tubes that penetrate the body and supplies oxygen directly to body cells |
| Gas exchange: Lungs | respiratory organ (system of branching ducts conveys air to the lungs) |
| Gas exchange: The circulatory system transports gases between the _____ and the rest of the body | lungs |
| Gas exchange: What do the size and complexity of lungs correlate with? | an animal's metabolic rate |
| Lungs: process that ventilates the lungs is _________ | breathing (alt inhalation and exhalation of air) |
| Lungs: Amphibian ventilates its lungs by ______ ______ breathing, which forces air down the trachea | positive pressure |
| Lungs: Mammals ventilate their lungs by _______ _______ breathing, which pulls air into the lungs | negative pressure |
| mammal breathing: Lung volume ____ as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract | increases |
| mammal breathing: Tidal volume | the volume of air inhaled with each breath |
| mammal breathing: Vital capacity | the maximum tidal volume is the vital capacity |
| mammal breathing: Residual volume | volume of air remaining in the lungs after exhalation |
| bird breathing: Birds have eight or nine air sacs that function as _____ that keep air flowing through the lungs | bellows |
| bird breathing: How does air pass through the lungs of a bird? | one direction only! (every exhalation completely renews the air in the lungs |
| Control of breathing: In humans, what are the two regions of the brain that are the main breathing control centers? | Medulla oblongata and the pons |
| Control of breathing: What does the medulla do? | adjusts breathing rate and depth to match metabolic demands |
| Control of breathing: What do the pons regulate? | the tempo |
| Transportation of Respiratory Gases: Most vertebrates and some invertebrates use ________ contained in erythrocytes to tranport gases in the blood | hemoglobin |
| Transportation of Respiratory Gases: hemoglobin | an iron-containing polypeptide in red blood cells that carries oxygen from lungs to body cells, and carbon dioxide from body cells to lungs |
| The immune system (function) | recognizes foreign bodies and responds with the production of immune cells and proteins |
| Innate immunity | present before any exposure to pathogens and is effective from the time of birth |
| What are three innate defenses? | Barrier defenses, Phagocytic white blood cells, Antimicrobial Peptides and Proteins |
| Name two other innate defenses that are unique to vertebrates | inflammatory response and natural killer cells |
| Innate defenses: Barrier defenses | include skin and mucous membranes of the respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts |
| Cellular innate defenses: Phagocytosis | white blood cells (leukocytes) engulf pathogens in the body |
| Innate defenses: antimicrobial peptides and proteins | attack microbes directly or impedes their reproduction |
| Innate defenses: what are the steps of inflammatory responses? | 1)mast cells release histamine, which promotes changes in blood vessels. 2)these changes increase local blood supply and allow more phagocytes and antimicrobial proteins to enter tissues 3)Pus accumulates at site of inflammation |
| Inflammatory responses: Pus | a fluid rich in white blood cells, dead microbes, and cell debris. |
| Inflammatory responses: Fever | systemic inflammatory response triggered by pyrogens released by macrophages, and toxins from pathogens |
| Inflammatory responses: Septic shock | life-threatening condition caused by an overwhelming inflammatory response |
| Natural Killer cells | attack damaged cells (cancerous or infected cells that no long have a class 1 MHC protein) |
| Acquired immunity | (adaptive immunity) develops after exposure to agents such as microbes, toxins, or other foreign substances. |
| What happens during acquired immunity? | lymphocytes recognize and respond to antigens (foreign molecules) |
| Acquired immunity: T Cells | lymphocytes that mature in the thymus above the heart |
| Acquired immunity: B Cells | lymphocytes that mature in bone marrow |
| Acquired immunity: Lymphocytes contribute to immunological memory. What is immunological memory? | an enhanced response to a foreign molecule encountered previously |
| Acquired immunity: Each individual lymphocyte is specialized to ________ a specific type of molecule | recognize |
| Acquired immunity: antigen | any foreign molecule to which a lymphocyte responds |
| Acquired immunity: A single B cell or T cell has about 100,000 identical ______ ________. | antigen receptors |
| Acquired immunity: All antigen receptors on a single lymphocyte recognize the same epitope on an antigen. What is an epitope? | an antigenic determinant |
| Acquired immunity: B cells give rise to plasma cells, which secrete proteins called _________ or immunoglobulins | antibodies |
| Acquired immunity: __ cell receptors bind to a specific, intact antigen | B |
| Acquired immunity: __ cell receptors bind to antigen fragments presented on a host cell | T |
| Acquired immunity: These antigen fragment are bound to cell-surface proteins called ___ molecules | MHC (encoded by a family of genes called the major histocompatability complex) |
| What is the role of MHC molecules in infected cells? | they bind and transport antigen fragments to the cell surface(called antigen presentation) |
| After MHC molecules go through the antigen presentation process... what happens next? | a nearby T cell detects the antigen fragments on the cell's surface |
| Lymphocyte development: What three important properties do the acquired immune system have? | receptor diversity, a lack of reactivity against host cells, and immunological memory |
| Lymphocyte diversity: | differences in the variable region account for specificity of antigen receptors |
| Lymphocyte diversity: What does the immunoogloulin (Ig) gene encode? | it encodes one chain of the B cell receptor |
| Lymphocyte diversity: Many different chains can be produced from the same Ig chain by... | rearrangement of the DNA |
| Lymphocyte diversity: What then happens to the rearranged DNA? | it is transcribed and translated and the antigen receptor is formed |
| Overview of Lymphocyte diversity: Quickly give the four steps of the process | 1)DNA deleted between randomly selected V and J segments 2)transcription 3)RNA processing 4)Translation |
| Lymphocyte diversity: Self-Tolerance | when the immune system has proceeded far enough in the process of self-recognition to lose the capacity to attack and destroy its own bodily constituents |
| Lymphocyte diversity: Self-Tolerance-antigen receptors are generated by... | random rearrangement of DNA |
| Lymphocyte diversity: Self-Tolerance-As lymphocytes mature in bone marrow or the thymus, they are tested for ___-_______ | self-reactivity |
| Lymphocyte diversity: Clonal selection illustrates how... | immunological memory permits a rapid response upon a second exposure to an antigen |
| Lymphocyte diversity: Clonal selection-In the body there are few ________ with antigen receptors for any particular epitope | lymphocytes |
| Lymphocyte diversity: Clonal selection-The binding of mature lymphocyte to an antigen induces... | the lymphocyte to divide rapidly |
| Lymphocyte diversity: Clonal selection- therefor, is the proliferation of _______ | lymphocytes |
| Lymphocyte diversity: Clonal selection- two types of clones are produced. what are they? | effector cells and memory cells(long-lived) |
| Lymphocyte diversity: acquired immune response- primary immune response | the first exposure to a specific antigen |
| Lymphocyte diversity: acquired immune response- During primary response, effector B cells called ______ cells are generated and the T cells are activated to their effector forms | plasma |
| Lymphocyte diversity: acquired immune response- secondary imune response | memory cells facilitate a faster, more efficient response |
| Immunization: Active immunity develops _______ in response to an infection | naturally |
| Immunization: Active immunity includes _______. | vaccines |
| Immunization: Passive immunity provides... | immediate, short-term protection |
| Immunization: Passive immunity includes... | breastmilk and anitvenin |
| What does immune rejection cause? | Causes complications with organ and tissue transplants |
| Immune rejection: what is the importance of the ABO blood group? | it's a universal donor |
| Disruptions in Immune System Function: allergies | body attacks harmless substances |
| Disruptions in Immune System Function: Autoimmune Disease | body attacks its own tissues |
| Disruptions in Immune System Function: Acquire immunodeficiency results from... | exposure to chemical and biological agents |
| Disruptions in Immune System Function: What is immunodeficiency syndrome? | AIDS (cause by HIV virus) |
| Disruptions in Immune System Function: Inborn immunodeficiency results from... | hereditary or devlopmental defects that prevent proper functioning of innate, humoral, and/or cell-mediated defenses |
| Immune System Evasion by Pathogens: through antigenic variation, some pathogens are able to... | change epitope expression and prevent recognition (flu vaccines made each year) |
| Immune System Evasion by Pathogens: some viruses may remain in a hos in an inactive state called _______. | Latency (chicken pox and herpes) |
| Immune System Evasion by Pathogens: what does HIV infect? | helper T cells |
| Immune System Evasion by Pathogens: HIV eludes the immune system because... | antigenic variation and an ability to remain latent |
Created by:
cmccartney2