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PSY 303 EXAM 1 (6-9)
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| schemes | in Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge; ex: driving a car, balancing budget, judging fairness |
| assimilation | Piagetian concept in which children use existing schemes to incorporate new information or experiences |
| accommodation | Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences |
| organization | Piagetian concept of grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system |
| equilibration | A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next |
| sensorimotor stage | the first of Piaget's stages, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing & hearing) with physical, motoric actions |
| object permanence | piagetian term for one of an infant's most important accomplishments: understanding that an object continues to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched |
| A-not-B error | also called AB error; this occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding place (A) rather than the new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 in Piaget's sensorimotor stage |
| core knowledge approach | states that infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems. Among these domain-specific knowledge systems are those involving space, number sense, object permanence, and language |
| preoperational stage | second Piagetian developmental stage, which last from about 2 to 7 years of age; children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings |
| operations | reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what before they had done only physically |
| symbolic function substage | first substage of preoperational thought; occurring roughly between ages of 2 and 4; the young child gains the ability to represent mentally an object that is not present |
| egocentrism | inability to distinguish between one's own and someone else's perspective; an important feature of preoperational thought |
| animism | a facet of preoperational though--the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action |
| intuitive thought substage | second substage of preoperational thought; children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions |
| centration | the focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others |
| conservation | awareness that altering the appearance of an object or a substance does not change its basic properties |
| concrete operational stage | third Piagetian stage, which lasts from about 7 to 11 years; children can perform concrete operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples |
| seriation | the concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length) |
| transitivity | ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions. Piaget argued that an understanding of transitivity is characteristic of concrete operational thought |
| formal operational stage | fourth and final Piagetian stage, which appears between 11 and 15; individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in more abstract and logical ways |
| hypothetical-deductive reasoning | Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems and can systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem |
| adolescent egocentrism | heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in adolescents' beliefs that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves, and in adolescents' sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility |
| imaginary audience | that aspect of adolescent egocentrism that involves feeling one is the center of attention and sensing that one is on stage |
| personal fable | part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility |
| neo-Piagetians | developmentalist who have elaborated on Piaget's theory, emphasizing attention to children's strategies; information-processing speed; the task involved; and division of the problem into more precise, smaller steps |
| zone of proximal development (ZPD) | Vygotsky's term for tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children |
| scaffolding | in cognitive development, a term Vygotsky used to describe the changing level of support over the course of a teaching session, with the more-skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level |
| social constructivist approach | an emphasis on the social contexts of learning and construction of knowledge through social interaction. Vygotsky's theory reflects this approach |
| postformal thought | thinking that is reflective, relativistic, and contextual; provisional; realistic; and influenced by emotions |
| Piaget's concepts of development | schemes, assimilation, accommodation, organization, equilibrium, and equilibration |
| behavioral schemes | physical activity |
| mental schemes | cognitive activities |
| According to Piaget, what two things help explain how children use/adapt their schemes? | assimilation and accommodation |
| Disequilibrium | cognitive conflict |
| Six substages of sensorimotor stage | simple reflexes, first habits/primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of secondary circular reactions, tertiary circular reactions/novelty/curiosity, internalization of schemes |
| Simple reflexes stage | first month after birth; sensation and action are coordinated primarily thru reflexive behaviors such as rooting & sucking |
| First habits & primary circular reactions stage | second stage of sensorimotor;1-4 months of age; coordinates sensation & habits and primary circular reactions |
| habit | a scheme based on a reflex that has become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus |
| circular reaction | a repetitive action |
| primary circular reaction | a scheme based on the attempt to reproduce an event that initially occurred by chance |
| secondary circular reaction stage | third of sensorimotor stage; 4-8 months old; more object oriented, moving beyond preoccupation with the self |
| secondary circular reaction | an action repeated because of its consequences |
| Coordination of secondary circular reaction stage | 4th sensorimotor stage; 8-12 months; coordinate vision & touch, hand & eye; actions more outwardly directed; coordinate schemes & intentionality |
| Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, & curiosity stage | 5th sensorimotor stage; 12-18 months old; intrigued by properties of objects |
| Tertiary circular reactions | schemes in which the infant purposely explores new possibilities with objects, continually doing new things to them & exploring the results |
| Internalization of schemes | sixth sensorimotor stage & final stage; symbols are used; form enduring mental representations |
| encoding | the process by which information gets into memory |
| automaticity | the ability to process information with little or no effort |
| strategy construction | creation of new procedures for processing information |
| metacognition | cognition about cognition or "knowing about knowing" |
| attention | focusing of mental resources |
| selective attention | focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant |
| divided attention | concentrating on more than one activity at the same time |
| sustained attention | the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time |
| executive attention | cognitive process involving action planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances |
| joint attention | focus by individuals on the same object of event; requires an ability to track another's behavior, one individual to direct another's attention, and reciprocal interaction |
| memory | retention of information over time |
| schema theory | theory stating that people mold memories to fit information that already exists in their minds |
| schemas | mental frameworks that organize concepts and information |
| implicit memory | memory without conscious recollection--memory of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically |
| explicit memory | conscious memory of facts and experiences |
| long-term memory | a relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory |
| short-term memory | retention of information for up to 15 to 30 seconds, without rehearsal of the information. Using rehearsal, individuals can keep the information in short-term memory longer |
| working memory | a mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language |
| elaboration | engagement in more extensive processing of information, benefiting memory |
| fuzzy trace theory | theory stating that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: verbatim memory trace, and gist. in this theory, older children's better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of info. |
| episodic memory | retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings |
| semantic memory | a person's knowledge about the world, including fields of expertise, general academic knowledge and "everyday knowledge" about meanings of words, names of famous individuals, important places, and common things |
| source memory | the ability to remember where something was learned |
| prospective memory | remembering to do something in the future |
| thinking | manipulating and transforming info in memory, in order to reason, reflect, think critically, evaluate ideas and solve problems, and make decisions |
| concepts | cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas |
| executive functioning | umbrella-like concept that encompasses a # of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of brain's prefrontal cortex. Executive functioning involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior & to exercise self-control |
| critical thinking | thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating the evidence |
| dual-process model | theory stating that decision making is influenced by two cognitive systems--one analytical and one experiential--that compete with each other |
| expertise | having extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain |
| metamemroy | knowledge of memory |
| theory of mind | thoughts about how one's own mental processes work and the mental processes of others |
| intelligence | the ability to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from experiences |
| mental age (MA) | an individual's level of mental development relative to others |
| intelligence quotient (IQ) | an individual's mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100; devised in 1912 by William Stern |
| normal distribution | a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve with a majority of the cases falling in the middle of the possible range of scores and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range |
| triarchic theory of intelligence | Sternberg's theory that intelligence consists of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence |
| emotional intelligence | the ability to perceive and express emotions accurately and adaptively, to understand emotion and emotional knowledge, to use feelings to facilitate thought, and to manage emotions in oneself and others |
| heritability | the portion of the variance in a population that is attributed to genes |
| culture-fair tests | intelligence tests that are designed to avoid cultural bias |
| Bayley Scales of Infant Development | Widely used scales, developed by Nancy Bayley; for assessing infant development. Current version has five scales: cognitive, language, motor, socio-emotional, & adaptive; the first three are administered to the infant, the later two for caregiver |
| crystallized intelligence | an individual's accumulated info and verbal skills, which continues to increase with age |
| fluid intelligence | ability to reason abstractly, which begins to decline in middle adulthood |
| cognitive mechanics | the "hardware" of the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological architecture of the brain as developed through evolution. Cognitive mechanics involves the speed and accuracy of the processes involving sensory input, visual & motor memory, discrimination,etc |
| cognitive pragmatics | culture-based "software" of the mind. Cognitive pragmatics include reading & writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and also the type of self-knowledge and life skills that help us to master/cope with life |
| wisdom | expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgement about important matters |
| mental retardation | a condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional test of intelligence and has difficulty adapting to everyday life |
| giftedness | having above-average intelligence (IQ 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something |
| creativity | ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems |
| divergent thinking | thinking that produces many answers to the same question; characteristic of creativity |
| convergent thinking | thinking that produces on correct answer; characteristic of the kind of thinking required on conventional intelligence tests |
| brainstorming | technique in which individuals are encouraged to come up with creative ideas in a group, play off each other's ideas, and say practically whatever comes to mind relevant to a particular issue |
| language | a form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a system of symbols |
| infinite generativity | ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules |
| phonology | sound system of a language-includes the sounds used and how they may be combined |
| morphology | units of meaning involved in word formation |
| syntax | the ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences |
| semantics | the meanings of words and sentencecs |
| pragmatics | the appropriate use of language in different contexts |
| telegraphic speech | use of short, precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxilary verbs, and other connectives |
| fast mapping | a process that helps to explain how young children learn the connection between a word and its referent so quickly |
| metalinguistic awareness | knowledge about language |
| whole-language approach | a teaching approach built on the idea that reading instruction should parallel children's natural language learning. Reading materials should be whole and meaningful |
| phonics approach | a teaching approach built on the idea that reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds |
| metaphor | an implied comparison between two unlike things |
| satire | the use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness |
| dialect | a variety of language that is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation |
| Broca's area | an area of the brain's left frontal lobe that is involved in producing words |
| Wernicke's area | an area of the brain's left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehension |
| aphasia | a loss or impairment of language processing resulting from damage to Broca's area or Wernicke's area |
| language acquisition device (LAD) | Chomsky's term that describes a biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics |
| child-directed speech | language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, with simple words and sentences |
| recasting | rephrasing a statement that a child has said, perhaps turning it into a question, or restating a child's immature utterance in the form of a fully grammatical sentence |
| expanding | restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has said |
| labeling | identifying the names of objects |
| Alfred Binet | came up with method to determine intelligence test; developed first standardized intelligence test; focused on the norm within age groups; used bell curves; PURPOSE: for diagnosis of learning disabilities |
| Wechsler Scales | more common today then Binet tests;culturally specific to US; overall IQ score plus composite scores; |
| What is the criticism by old theorists on emotional intelligence? | makes intelligence spectrum too broad and can't be scientifically proven |
Created by:
amay322