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Social Psych Midterm
Social Psych Midterm I (Chap 1-5, 7, 11)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Social Psychology | The Scientific stufy of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviros of individuals in social situations. |
| Personality Psychology | stresses individual differences over the social situation. They look for a pattern in a persons behavior over several situations. |
| Cognitive Psychology | study of how people perceive, think about/remember aspects of the world. |
| "The Banality of Evil" | Ardent's idea that those who construct horrible deeds aren't evil, but are just boring and unimaginative, |
| Fundamental Attribution Error | Most people underestimate the effects of external forces on their behavior. The failure to recognize the importance of situational influence on behavior. |
| Disposition | Beliefs, values, personality traits, abilities (real or imagined). People often think of these as underlying causes of behavior. |
| Channel Factors | Explains why certain situations that seem inimportant on the outside are of great consequence for behavior. This was founded by Kurt Lewin, and they say that situation factors can guide behavior. |
| Construal | our interpetation of situations and inferences of them. |
| Gestalt Psychology | stresses the importance that people percieve objects by an unconscious interpretation of what the object represents as a whole |
| Prisoners Dillema | A situation with payoffs to two people where they could either cooperate or defect. Trust and Cooperation leads to higher joint payoffs. |
| Schemas | knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored information, helps us know how to behave in a particular situation. we tend to jduge people on our own personal schemas. Stereotypes are schemas about people within a certain group. |
| Automatic processing | people react quickly to fearful situations so they can take immediate actions to save themselves from danger |
| Unconscious Controlled Processing | When beliefs/behaviors are generated without our being aware of it. |
| Skill Acquisition | as we learn and overlearn skills we can exercise them without being aware of doing so. |
| Examples of universal human behaviors | Facial expressions, group sharing, dominance and submission |
| Theory of Mind | ability to recognize that people have beliefs and desires. Humans learn this before age 2. It's developed by 3 or 4 so children can see others are false. |
| Naturalistic Fallacy | The belief that the way things are is the way they should be. |
| Hindsight Bias | People's tendency to be overconfident about whether they could have predicted a given outcome. It is avoidable by predicting results of studies before finding out the result. |
| Hypothesis | A prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances. They give broader theories about behavior. |
| Theory | A body of related propositions intended tod escribe some aspect of the world. The notion largely speculated by the world, generally have the support of empirical data. They are more general than hypotheses, because hypotheses are tested by studies. |
| Observational Research | looking a phenomenon in some systematic way to understand what's going on. |
| Participant Observation | observing some phenomenon at close range. An example of this Prof. Apicella with the Hadza people. Social Psychologists observe social situations by adding additional research to verify results and impressions. |
| Archival Research | looking at evidence found in archives of various kinds, record books, police reports, sports stats etc. |
| Survey | Simple asking people questions, using a random sample that's taken from the population with all participants given equal chance. |
| Convenience Sample in Surveys | using an available subgroup of the population, i.e. targeting students entering a Student Union. Can be problematic for the outcome of the study because you might be using too many kinds of a specific type of person. |
| Experimental Research | research that randomly assigns people to different conditions/situations, enabiling researchers to make strong inferences about how different conditions affect people's behavior. |
| Reverse Causation | when variable 1 is assumed to cause variable 2, but the opposite is true |
| Third Variable Problem | Variable 1 and Variable 2 don't cause one another, but rather osme other variable has a causal influence on both. |
| Correlational Research Measurement | measured from 0-1 .2 indicates slight relationship .4 moderately strong relationship .6 very strong relationship Negative means being higher on one side means being lower on the other. |
| Longitudinal Studey | One that studies peopel at two points in time, rules out the opposite direction of causality |
| Experimental Research | requires independent and dependent variables. Using random assignnment, control conditions we can see the effect of one variable on another. |
| Independent Variable | one that's manipulated and hypothesized to be the cause of a particular outcome. |
| Dependent Variable | Measured and hypothesized to be the outcome of a particular causal process. It can be measured through verbal reports, behavior physiological measures or neural measures. |
| Random Assignment | Allows us to expose different participants to varying levels of the variables without bias. |
| Control Condition | Idential to the other patients situations, but lacks the one aspect they believe causes the expected effect being measured. |
| Natural Experiments | Events occur that the investigator believes to have casual implications for some outcome. |
| Poor External Validity Occurs... | When researches don't know hwo to generalize the results obtained in an experiment to real life situations. There is, thus, very little resemblance to real life situations. |
| Field Experiment | Resembles laboratory expriments conceptually but are set up in the real world, usually with participants who aren't aware that they're in a study of any kind. |
| internal Validity | Confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the results. |
| Debriefing | Asking participants straight forwardly if they understood the instructions, found the set up to be reasonable and so forth |
| Realiability in Research | Is the degree to which the particular way that researchers measure a given variable is likely to yield consistent results. |
| Measurement Validity | Correlation between some measure and some outcome that the measure is supposed to predict. Validity coefficients typically don't exceed .5 statistical significance |
| Statistical Significance | Measure of the probability that a result could have occurred by choice. |
| Basic Science | When researchers don't try to change what they're observe |
| Applied Science | When researchers are concerned with solving real-world problems of importance. |
| Institutional Review Board | Examiners research proposals and makes judgements about the ethical appropriateness of the research. The research must be deemed overly harmful before for it to need to be changed. |
| Informed Consent | governs acceptability of medical research. The participants should be made aware of all side effects/aspects of studies. It doesn't work with deception research. |
| Individual Self | Encompasses a person's beliefs about his/her own personal traits, abilities and preferences |
| Relational Self | Sense of oneself in specific relationships |
| Collective Self | Beliefs about our identities as members of social groups to which we belong |
| Sybmolic Interactionist | We come to know ourselves by imagining what others think of us |
| Reflected Self Appraisal | Beliefs about what others think about our social selves. We constantly receive subtle/direct appraisals and these convey that we're competent/neurotic. This is how we think others appraise us, not their actual opinions. |
| Working Self Concept | coined by Markus and Wurf in 1987, this refers to the idea that only a subset of a person's vast pool of self-knowledge is brought to mind in any given context. |
| Distinctiveness Hypothesis | (McGuire and SInger) The idea that we highlight what makes us unique in any given social situation. |
| How can we reconcile notions of malleability and stability in our selves? | Core components of self knowledge are likely to be at the top of our mind when we think about the self; a person's pool of self-knowledge remains stable over time, giving a sense of self continuity; shifts conform to a predicatble, stable pattern. |
| Independent Self-Construal | Self is an autonomous entity that is distinct and separate from others. Focus on niqueness and internal causes of behaviors. |
| Interdependent Self-Construal | the self is fundamentally connected to other people. Goal is to find a place and fulfill a role in a community and other collectives. In Japan the word for 'I' is virtually never used, and there are different versions of the word for different situations |
| Social Comparison Theory | The hypothesis that people compare themselves to other people in order to get an accurate assessment of their own opinions abilities and internal states. |
| Upwards Social Comparison | When we aspire to be good at something. |
| Self-Schema | Cognitive structures derived from past experience that represents a person's belief and feelings about the self in particular domains. Using these u should be able to process info more rapidly & remember info we encounter. |
| Self-Reference Effect | The tendency for information that is related to the self to be more thoroughly processed and integrated with existing self-knowledge making it more memorable. |
| Self-Complexity Tendency | The tendency to define the self in terms of multiple domains that are relatively distinct from one another in content. If you have high self-complexity, when bad things happen u feel the negativity relatively contained, but when u have a low one its bad. |
| Three Components of the Social Self | The Individual Self, The Relational Self, and the Collective Self |
| Self-Esteem | The positive/negative overall evaluation that each person has of their self |
| Trait Self-Esteem | a person's enduring level of self-regard over time |
| State Self-Esteem | the dynamic, changeable self-esteem that are experienced as momentary feelings about the self. |
| Contingencies of Self-Worth | Crocker and Wolfe's idea that self-esteem is contingent on successes and failures in domains which a person's palced his/her self-worth. Family support, school competence social approval r all important. Pursuing self-esteem in any domain is dangerous, le |
| Sociometer Hypothesis | Mark Leary believes self esteem is a readout of our likely standing with others. Independent cultures foster higher self-worth than interdependent ones. |
| Self Enhancement | People are motivated to view themselves more positively. this is where self-serving construals like the Better-than-average effect occur. |
| Better-Than-Average Effect | Is a self-serving construal that occurs because most peopel think they're above average at various traits and ability dimensions. People tend to construe one trait in terms of excelling and thusly consider themselves as above average. Ambiguous traits esp |
| Self-Evaluation Maintenance (SEM) Model | Tesser argues that ppl shift b/w reflection and comparison in a way that allows them to maintain a positive view of themselves. When others succeed we view it as our own success & when we succeed we compare ourselves as greater. |
| Self-Verification | People strive for stable, subjectively accurate beliefs about ourselves ebcause such beliefs give us coherance. So we selectively recall info that's consistent with our self-views and create self-confirmatory evironment thru behavior |
| Self-Regulation | processes by which ppl alter their behavior in pursuit of their goals, including resisting short term awards for long term goals |
| Possible Selves | The peopel who we aspire to be in the future. They're stored in our memory and posess Self-regulatory functions that serve to motivate goal-oriented actions. Strong possible selves are more optimistic and less prone to depression. |
| Self-Discrepancy Theory | Tory Higgin's theory that people hold not only beliefs about what they're actually like (actual self) but also what they'd ideally be like (ideal self) and what they ought to be like (ought self). Ideal is hopes and wishes, ought is duties and obligations |
| Dejection-Related Affect from Self-Discrepancy Theory | WHen there are discrepancies between the actual and ideal self |
| Promotional Focus for Self Discrepancy Theory | When people aim to regulate their behavior with respect to diea self standards, this has a focus on positiveoutcomes and are more engaged with approach related behaviors. |
| Prevention Focus in Self Discrepancy theory | A focus on avoiding negative outcomes is typical to those with regulatory ought-self |
| Self monitoring | The tendency for people to monitor their behavior in such a way that it fits situational demands. High monitos scrutinize sit. and shift self to fit context; low monitors act to internal inclinations and impulses. |
| Self-Handicapping | People's tendency to engage in self-defeating behavior in order to have a ready excuse should they perform poorly or fail |
| Pluralistic Ignorance | Misperception of a group norm that results from observing people who are acting at variance with their private beliefs out of concern for the social consequences |
| Distortion | Occurs in second hand accounts because of a desire to entertain. Thus, media is more likely to report negative news than positive |
| Primacy Effect | The disproportionate influence on jdugemnt by information presented first in a body of evidence |
| Recency Effect | The disproportionate influence on judgement by information presented last in a body of evidence |
| Framing Effect | The influence on judgement resulting from the way information is presented, such as the order of presentation or how it is worded. |
| Spin Framing | A less pure form of framing that varies the content, not just the order, of what's rpesented |
| Construal Level Theory | Part of temporal framing, its a theory that outlines the relat. b/w physological distance and concreteness versus abstraction of thought. Distant actions and events are thought of in abstract and actions that are close are thought of in concrete. |
| Confirmation Bias | The tendency to test a proposition by searching for evidence that would support it. Sometimes people deliberately seek evidence that supports their expectations |
| Bottom-Up Porcessing | Data driven mental-processing, in which an indivdiual forms conclusions based on the stimuli encountered through experience |
| Top-Down Processing | "Theory driven" mental processing, in which an individual filters and interprets new infomration in light of preexi |
| Encoding | Filing information away in memory based on what information is attended to and the initial interpretation of the information. |
| Retrieval | The extraction of information from memory |
| Priming | Procedures that momentarily activate a particular schema |
| Subliminal Schemas | below threshold of conscious awareness |
| Feature Matching | Ensures that the right schema is typically applied to a given situation. This can lead to a wrong schema being applied to a given situation. Correct ones help us save a lot of time and menatl energy |
| Self-Fufilling Prophecy | Often the result of expectations affecting behavior. This is the tendency for people to act in ways that bring about the very thing they expect to happen. there must be a mechanism that transforms a given expectation intoa confirmatory action. |
| Intuitive Syetms | One system of thought we use to respond to stimuli that operates quickly and automatically based on associations |
| Rational Systems | One system of thought we use to respond to stimuli that is slower and more controlled than the intuitive one, and is based on rules and deductions and performs its operations serially. |
| Heuristics | Intuitive mental "shortcuts" that provide serviceable but inexact answers to common problems of judgement. There are two main types: availability heuristic and representativeness heuristic |
| Availability Heuristic | When we judge the frequency or probability of some event by how readily pertinent events come to mind. If examples come quickly, we assume there are many of them. This causes people to overestimate their contributions to projects |
| Representativeness Heuristic | When we try to categroize something by jduging how similar it is to our conception of the typical member of the category. Useful in making accurate judgments about people and events. Can be bad if people solely use this |
| Fluency | The easy/difficulty associated with processing ifnormation. Fluent names seem more famous and more prototypically members of their categories, common adages that rhyme seem more valid than those that doent. It influences the perceived difficulty of a task |
| Base-Rate information | knowledge about relative frequency. Useful in representativeness heuristic. People often neglect/underuse this when someone is deciding if another fits into a category. Taking an outside view helps refocus the question |
| Planning Fallacy | The tendency for people to be unrealistically potimistic about how quickly they can complete a project |
| Illusory Heuristic | The belief that two variables are correlated when in fact they are not. |
| Attribution Theory | An umbrella term used to describe the set of theoretical accounts of how people assign casues to the events around them and the effects that people's causal assesment have |
| Causal Attribution | The process people use to express/explain both their own and other's behavior. the attributions we make can greatly affect our thoughts, feelings and future behaviors. People's explanation of these have consequences in many areas. |
| Explanatory Style and Attribution | Peterson and Seligman. A person's habitual way of explaining events and is assessed along 3 dimensions (internal/external, stable/unstable, global/specific). The 3 together gives an overall explanatory style, which is correlated with an variab. outcome. |
| Internal/External Explanatory Style | Internal implicates the self, while external does not |
| Stable/Unstable Explanatory Style | Stable causes suggest things won't change, while unstable means they may improve |
| Global/Specific Explanatory Style | Global is something that affects several areas while specific only applies to a few. |
| Covariation Principle | We try to determine what causes internal or external covaration with the observation we're trying to explain. 3 types of covaration are particularly significant: consensus, distinctiveness and consistency |
| Consensus Covariation | What most people would do |
| Distinctiveness Covariation | What an individual does in different situations - that is, whether the behavior is unique to a particular situation or occurs in all situations |
| Consistency Covariation | What an indivdiual does in a given situation on different occasions - that is, whether next time under the same circumstances the person would behave the same or differently. |
| Discounting Principle | Our confidence that a particular cause is responsible for a given outcome must be reduced if there are other plausible causes that might've produced it |
| Augmentation principle | The idea that people should assign greater weight to a particular cause of behavior if the other causes are present that normally would produce opposite outcomes. Out-of-character behavior promotes more extr. judgments & is seen as more tru to persons xtr |
| Emotional Amplification | Our emotional reaction seems to be more intense if something almost didn't happen. We think about what might have been, and get more upset overt that |
| Self-Serving Attribution Bias | The tendency to attribute failure and other bad events to external circumstances, but to attribute success to one self. This is a motivational bias, motivated by the desire to maintain self-esteem. Failure usually occurs despite our efforts |
| Fundamental Attribution Error | A tendency to see people's behavior as a reflection of teh kind of people they are, rather than the situation they're in. Our attributions for success and failure in life should relfect tehr elative advantages and disadvantages ppl have experienced |
| Just- World Hypothesis | The Belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get |
| Salient | How much the cause stands out perceptually. we observe behavior in question adn intitally identify what the behavior is and what it means. We immediately characterize someone based on this behavior, due to primacy. Adjustment of beliefs requires effort |
| Attitude | An evaluation of an object along a positive/negative spectrum. They involve affect (how much people like/dislike an object) at the core. They may involve COgnitions and are associated with behaviros |
| Cognitions | Thoughts that typically reinforce a person's feelings. The knowledge/belief about the object and associated memories and images |
| Affect | how much people like/dislike an object |
| Behaviros | Good vs. bad = approach vs. avoid. |
| Accessibility of an Attitude | how readily available the attitude is to be activated in one's mind. Russell fazio and his colleagues measure this by testing the time it takes an individaual to respond to the attitude question (Response Latency) |
| Response Latency | How long it takes an individual to respond to an attitude question |
| Implicit Attitude Measures | Indirect measures of attitudes that do not involve self-report. This is used by investigators when they believe people may be unwilling/unable to report true attitudes. They tap automatic attitudes |
| La Piere's Chinese/Restaurant Study | La Piere drove around with a Chinese couple throughout America dining at 200 restaruants, most of which served them, in the 20s. Afterwards he mailed all the restaurants asking them whether they'd serve Chinese customers. Overwhelmingly many said no. Atti |
| Introspection | Difficult when the source of our attitude is difficult to pin down. When the basis of our attitude iscognitive, search for reasons is more likely to yielf the real reasons adn introspection is unlikely to diminish relationship b/w attitude and behavior |
| Attitudes Based on Second-Hand Info | Attitudes absed on first hand observations predict subsequent behavior much better than those derived indirectly. Those with first hand info and strong opinions are more likelu to take action on those opinions. |
| Balance Thoery | Heider's theory that people maintain balance among their beliefs, cognitions and sentiments. When there's imabalnce you exert psychological energy to achieve or restore balance in this set of relationships. |
| Two types of studies that support Heider's Thoery | Studies that establish two realtionships in a triad and elicit people's inferences about the third, and studies that present various balan. and imbalan. relat. and examine how comfortable people are with them |
| Cognitive Dissonance Theory | A theory that maintains that inconsistencies among a person's thoughts, sentiments and actions creat ean aversive emotional state that leads to efforts to restore consistency. Introduced by Festinger. Dissonance Reduction only occurs after an irrevocable |
| Effort Justification | If you pay a lot for something and it's dissapointin, you'll experience dissonance, you'll rationalize doing it. ex. fraternity hazing. |
| Induced (forced) compliance | people are induced to behavre in a way that's inconsistent with their beliefs, attitdues or values. People can change their original atttitdues when behavior cannot be changed. |
| Times we expect dissonance: | When we act in ways that are diff. than our core values1) behavior was freely chosen; 2) behavior wasn't sufficiently justified; 3) behavior had negative consequences; 4) negative consequences were foreseeeable |
| Self Affirmation | bolstering our identity and selfesteem by atking note of important elements of our identity, sucha s important values. A way people cope with threats to self-esteem. |
| Self-Perception Theory | Daryl Bem's theory that people come to know their own attitudes by looking at their behaviro and the context in which it occured and ifnerring what their attitudes must be. |
| Self-Perception & Arousal | acting at variance with our true beliefs generates arousal. Dissonance reduction occurs when people's behavior is inconsistent with preexisting attitudes that are clear-cut and of some importance. |
| Core of self-Perception Theory | We use whatever cues we have avaialble to us to figure out what we think/Feel |
| System Justification Theory | Social and political systems don't serve everyon'es needs equally. Believing that the world is or should be fair combined with evidence of ineqality can generate ideological dissonance. |
| Terror Managemnt Theory | specifies the process humans use to eal with the crippling anxiety of certain death. people deny death thinking only their bodies, not spirits, will pass |
| Perspectives of Stereotyping, Prejudice and Discrimination | Economic Perspective, Motivational Perspective and Cognitive perspective |
| Economic Perspective of Steoreotyping | Identifies the roots of much intergroup hostility, bc people are vying for limited supplies of things. Groups Discriminate around marterial resources. |
| Motivational Perspective of Stereotyping | The existence of group boundaries among any collection of individuals can be suffcient to initiate group discrimination. |
| Cognitive Perspective of Stereotyping | Stereotyping is necessary because it stems from the ubiquit and encessity of categorization, which simplifies the processing of taking in and understanding the incredible volume of stimuli that confronts us. |
| Stereotypes | beliefs that certain attributes are characteriztic of member of particular groups. Involves thinking about a person not as an individual but as a member of a group and projecting what you think you know about the group onto your expectations of the indivd |
| Prejudice | An attitudinal and affective response toward a certain group and its individual members. Involves prejudicing people because they belong to a specific category. |
| Discrimination | refers to a negative on harmful behavior directed toward members of particular groups. It involves unfair treatment of others based on their membership in a group. A person |
| Modern Racism | An example of the theoretical shift of modern views of prejudice. It's directed at other racial groups that exists alongside rejections of explictly racist beliefs. They wouldn't join the KKK but they'd be likely to give a black man wider berth on the st. |
| Tools to measure attitudes about groups | Attitudes toward Blacks slcae, Modern Racism Scale, Internal Motivation to Respond without Prejudice Scale. People amy be unwilling to express convictions. |
| Implicit Association Test | Greenward and Banaji reveals subtle non conscious prejudices toward particular groups. It's a series of words/pics that are put on a screen and the respondent presses buttons if it conforms to 1 rule or another. Younger & Older ppl show more pronoun. prej |
| Priming | a procesdure used to increase the accessibility of a concept or schema. |
| Realistic Group Conflict Theory | group sometimes confront real conflict over what are essentially economic issues. Prejudice and discrimination should increase under conditions of economic difficultly |
| Ethnocentrism | Glorifying one's own group while villfying the other develops |
| Superordinate Goals | Goals that could not be achieved by either group alone but could be accomplished by working together. |
| Minimal Paradigm | Tajfel's experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these "minimal groups" are inclined to behave towards one another. Most raise ingroups gain |
| Social Identity Theory | Tajfel/Turner's theory that people's self-esteem derives not only from their personal identity but also from the status/accomplishments of the groups to which they join |
| Basking in Reflected glory | The tendency for people to take pride in the accomplishments of those with whom they're in some way associated, as when fans identify with a winning team. |
| Frustration-Agression Thoery | Frustration leads to aggression, if the source of frustration is the very group to which prejudice and discrimination are directed it can be both an economic and motivational account. |
| Out-group homogenity Effect | The tendency to assume that within-group similarity is much stronger for outgroup than for ingroup. Likely bc we notice diff. between members of our ingroup. |
| Paired Distinctiveness | The pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even more because they co-occur. |
| Subtyping | explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole. |
| Attributional Ambiguiity | WHen someone has to wonder whether an accomplishment is the product of stereotypes. |
| Stereotype Threat | the fear that members of a stigmatized group will confirm stereotypes that others have regarding a group with which they are a member. |
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vinisaggurti