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A&P Exam 2
Chapters 7,8,9,13
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| accessory structures to the skin that make up part of the integumentary system | sweat glands, hair, and nails and the subcutaneous tissue below the the skin |
| integumentary system | also includes the skin |
| skin | is a complex organ |
| skins function as a mechanical barrier | keep harmful substances out of the body and help retain water and electrolytes. The acid PH serves as a protective chemical barrier |
| skins function to protect internal organs | protects internal organs and structures against blows, cuts, harsh chemicals, sunlight burns , and pathogenic microorganisms |
| skins function participates in immune response | against invading microbes by housing specialized cells called dendritic and langerhans cells . When the skin is broken the dendritic cells alert the immune system so that it can ward off infection |
| skins function acts as a gland for vitamin D synthesis | skin celss contain a molecule that is converted to vitamin D when exposed to sunlight. Vitamin D is necessary for the absorption of calcium in the digestive tract |
| skins function an execretory function | the skin is able to excrete water, salt, and a small amounts of waste such as urea |
| skin functions as a sensory role | by housing the sensory receptors for touch , pressure, pain, and temperature |
| skin functions as an important role | in the regulation of body temperature |
| functions of the skin | mechanical barrier, protects internal structures, immune response, vitamin D synthesis, sensory role, regulates body temperature |
| the skin is called | integument or cutaneous membrane |
| the skin is considered | an organ and is the largest in the body |
| skin has 2 layers | epidermis, dermis |
| epidermis | outer or surface layer |
| dermis | anchored to a subcutaneous layer |
| study of the skin and skin disorders | dermatology |
| epidermis is composed of | stratified squamous epithelium |
| the epithelium is avascular | and has no blood supply of its own |
| epidermis can be divided in | 5 layers |
| stratum germinativum (deeper) | lies on top of the dermis and has a rich blood supply |
| the cells in the stratum gerinativum | are continuously dividing , producing millions of cells per day |
| as the cells move away from the dermis 2 changes take place | the cells die, and undergo keratinization |
| keratinization | whereby a protein , keratin, is deposited within the dying cell |
| the keratin | hardens and flattens the cell as it moves toward the outer surface of the skin |
| keratin also plays an important role in | making the skin water resistant |
| stratum corneum | is the surface layer of the epidermis , it is composed of 30 layers of dead, flattened, keratinized cells that slough off |
| the dead cells are continuously sloughed off (exfoliated) or | desquamated |
| dead sloughed of cells are called | dander |
| when dander is clumped together by oil on the skull it is called | dandruff |
| because sloughed off cells are continuously moving up from the deeper layers | each month you have a new layer of epithelium |
| insensible perspiration | about 500 ML/day of water is lost through the skin |
| when the skin or epidermis is severely burned the rate of insensible perspiration increase enormously | fluid loss is so great that the patient dies from shock due to low blood volume |
| When you immerse yourself in a hypotonic solution such as water your feet and hands appear | "waterlogged" from the epithelial cells absorbing the water , increasing the voulme and causing swelling |
| dermis | located under the epidermis and is the largest portion of the skin , it is composed of dense , fibrous, connective tissue |
| the dermis contains numerous collagen and elastin fibers surrounded by a gel like substance | these fibers make the dermis strong and stretchable |
| striae | excessive stretching of the skin causes small tears in the skin producing white lines, also called stretch marks |
| the thickness of the epidermis and dermis varies | according to the location on the body |
| accessory structures such as hair, nails, and certain glands are | embedded in within the dermis |
| located within the dermis are | blood vessels, nervous tissue, and some muscle tissue |
| many nerves have specialized endings called | sensory receptors |
| sensory receptors | detect pain, temperature, pressure, and touch |
| the dermis lies on the | subcutaneous layer |
| subcutaneous layer is also called the | hypodermis |
| subcutaneous layer | lies beneath the layer of skin |
| composed primarily of loose connective tissue and adipose tissue | subcutaneous layer |
| subcutaneous layer performs 2 major roles | helps to insulate the body from extreme temperature changes in the environment and it anchors the skin to the underlying structures |
| what areas have no subcutaneous layer and the skin anchors directly to the bone? | knuckles |
| drugs are often injected subcutaneous (SubQ)because | the hyodermis has a rich supply of blood vessels and they absorb the drugs and distribute it throughout the body |
| skin can absorb | many chemicals |
| skin drug delivery systems | hypodermal injections, transdermal patches, intradermal injections (allergy testing), topical apllications |
| skin also has the danger of | absorbing toxins (such as pesticides, and other household chemicals) |
| drugs can be placed on the skin and absorbed transdermally meaning | across the skin in order to achieve a systematic effect |
| factors of skin color | genes or genetic, physiology , and sometime pathology |
| deep within the epidermal layer of the skin are cells called | melanocytes |
| melanocytes secrete a a skin darkening pigment called | melanin |
| the melanin | stains the surrounding cells causing them to darkening |
| causes/determines our skin color | is not the the number of meloncytes but the amount secreted |
| malfunctioning melanocytes cause | albinism, vitiligo, freckles & Moles, malignant melanoma |
| albinlism | white loss of color |
| vitiligo | patches of white skin |
| freckles&moles | melanin becomes concentrate in one area |
| malignant melanoma | cancerous |
| carotene | yellow pigment - the presense of melann overshadoes the carotene's tint in most peope |
| blushing (physiological changes) | blood vessel dialation |
| pallor (physiological changes) | blood vessel constriction |
| cyanosis | bluish tint; poor oxygenation |
| juandice | yellowing, bilirubin deposition |
| bronzing | melanin overproduction |
| ecchymosis | black and blue bruising |
| accessory structures of the skin | hair, nails, glands |
| hair performs functions such as | detecting insects, protects eyes, keeps dust out lungs, hair on scalp keeps us warm |
| hormones effect growth | estrogen & testosterone |
| melanin influences ______________ color | hair |
| hair arises in the | epidermis |
| excessive hair growth is called | hirsutism |
| arrector pili | is hair muscle cells that cause hair to stand up |
| alopecia | is the loss of hair |
| nails | are thin plates of stratified squamous epithelial cells that contain a very hard form of keratin |
| nails protect | structures from injuries (toes & fingers) |
| The nails condition is affected by | oxygenation of blood supply, trauma, & nutritional deficiencies |
| examples of poor condition in the nails is | chubbing, in the pink or not, nail abuse, brittle |
| sebaceous glands | oil glands are associated with hair follicles and are found in all areas of the body that have hair |
| sebaceous glands | secrete sebum |
| sebum | an oily substance that flows into the hair root & then out onto the surface of the skin |
| sebaceous glands | play a unique role w/ a fetus with a covering called vernix coseosa |
| when sebaceous glands become blocked it causes | blackhead, pimple, cradle cap |
| suderiferous glands | sweat glands; secrete sweat |
| apocrine glands (armpits, pubic area) | associated with hair follicles |
| eccrine glands (temp regulation) | not associated with hair follicles |
| body temperature normal range | 98.6, however it can range from 97 - 100 F |
| core temp | the inner part of the body (rectal) |
| shell temp | the surface area of the body |
| thermoregulation | balance heat production and heat loss |
| heat production | metabolism, blood, muscles, food consumption |
| metabolism | basis of body temperature |
| blood disperses heat | throughout the body |
| most heat is produced by | muscles, liver, & endocrine glands |
| heat production is | affected by food consumption , hormones, disease, and activity |
| most heat loss (80%) | occurs through the skin |
| remaining (20%) of heat loss | is lost through the respiratory system (lungs) and excretory products urine and feces |
| types of heat loss | radiation, conduction, convection, evaporation |
| radiation | heat lost fro the warmer object (body) to the cooler air surrounding the warm object |
| conduction | loss of heat from a warm body to a coller object in contact with warm body |
| convection | is the loss of heat by air currents moving over the surface of the skin |
| evaporation | occurs when liquid becomes gas (rubbing alcohol) |
| hypothalamus | thermostat of the body and is located in the brain |
| senses change in the body temp and send s info to the skin & skeletal muscle | hypothalamus |
| heat is lost by | dialation of blood vessels, sweating |
| heat is conserved by | shivering, blood vessel constriction, less sweat |
| neonates | lose more heat than they produce due to a large head and a large surface area, less insulation, |
| must rely on non shivering thermogenesis-(Adipose tissue- metabolism of brown adipose tissue BAT) which generates more heat, have less capacity to dissipate heat | neonates |
| hyperthermia | syncope, cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke |
| hypothermia | slowed metabolism, fibrillation |
| when skin is burned | classified by depth |
| partial thickness burns | first degree, second degree |
| first degree burns | red, painful, slightly swollen |
| second degree burns | epidermis & dermis, red, swollen, painful, , blisters |
| full thickness burns | third degree burns |
| third degree burns | epidermis & dermis are destroyed but are painless because sensory receptors have been destroyed |
| burns are classified by the | Rule of Nines (to find out the extent of the damage) |
| severe burns are associated with | eschar |
| eschar | formation which is dead buried tissue that forms a thick , inflexible scab like layer over the burned surface |
| eschar acts like a | tourniquet, breeds bacteria, & secrete toxins |
| thinner skin | bruises more easily and does not insulate well |
| to retain moisture | limit baths and use of soap |
| reduce exposure to | uv radiation (all ages) |
| The three types of muscles are | skeletal, smooth and cardiac |
| skeletal muscle | is attached to the bone and controlled by choice |
| voluntary muscle | controlled by choice |
| Are long, shaped like cylinders or tubes and composed of proteins arranged to make the muscle striped | skeletal muscle |
| striated | proteins arranged to make the muscle appear striped |
| skeletal muscles produce movement and | maintain body posture |
| Produces considerable heat and therefore help maintain body temperature | skeletal muscle |
| smooth muscle | is generally found in the viscera , such as stomach |
| Is called visceral muscle | smooth muscle |
| Found in tubes and passageways and blood vessels | smooth muscle |
| Called the involuntary muscle because it functions automatically | smooth muscle |
| nonstriated muscle | unlike skeletal muscles, smooth muscle does not appear striated or have stripes |
| 2 characteristics of smooth muscle contraction | smooth muscle contraction is slower and continues for a longer time, has a greater degree of stretchiness vs skeletal muscle |
| smooth muscle tone | continuous partial contraction of the smooth muscle |
| smooth muscle contains the ability to stretch this allows for | the walls of organs such as uterus, urinary bladder, and stomach to expand to store their contents temporarily |
| if injured smooth muscle has a greater capacity for | regeneration than does the skeletal system |
| contraction of the smooth muscle of the organ | then it expels it contents. EX- Urinary bladder stores urine when full it contract thereby expelling urine, or contraction of the stomach mixes solid food into paste and pushes it forward to the intestine |
| cardiac muscle | is found only in the heart its function is to pump blood into throughout the body |
| cardiac muscle cells | are long branching cells that fit together tightly at junctions |
| intercalated discs | are long branching cells that fit together tightly at junctions |
| Classified as striated and involuntary muscle | cardiac muscle |
| intercalated discs (tight fittin junctions) promote | rapid conduction of the electrical signals throughout the heart |
| belly | refers to enlarged fleshy body of the muscle between the slender points of attachment |
| whole muscle structure order from bottom to top | 3. Fascia a. epimysium b. perimysium c.endomysium 2. Fascicles (bundles) 1. Tendon |
| belly | refers to the enlarged fleshy body of the muscle between the slender points of attachment |
| fascia | large skeletal muscles surrounded by layers of tough connective tissue |
| the outer layer of the fascia is called | epimysium |
| the middle layer of the fascia made of connective tissue is | perimysium |
| individual muscle fibers are found within the fasicicles and are surrounded by a third layer of connective tissue is called | endomysium |
| the epimysium, perimysium, endomysium extend toward and attach to the bone as a ____________ | tendon |
| is a cordlike structure that attached muscle to bone | tendon |
| compartment syndrome or crush syndrome | with a severe crush or injury , the muscle is damaged, it becomes inflamed and leaks fluid, pressure cuts off blood & nerve vessels. Deprived of nourishment and oxygen the muscle and nerves begin to die |
| in limbs | there is an extensive amount of fascia separating the muscles in isolated compartments |
| muscle forms attach to other structures 3 ways | 1. tendon attaches to bone 2. muscles attache directly to a bone or soft tissue 3. aponeurosis connects muscle to muscle or muscle to bone |
| aponeurosis | flat sheet like fascia that connects muscle to muscle or muscle to bone |
| the muscle cell is a | elongated muscle fiber, the muscle fiber has more than one nucleus and is surrounded by sarcolemma |
| sarcolemma | the muscle fiber has more than one nucleus and is surrounded by a cell membrane called |
| transverse tubules (T- tubles) | the cell membrane penetrates deep and into the interior of the muscle fiber forming |
| within the muscle fiber there is a specialized | endoplasmic reticulum called SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM |
| myofibrils | each muscle fiber is composed of long cylindrical structure called |
| each myofibrils is made up of a series of contractile units called | sarcomeres |
| each sacomeres extends from Z line to Z line and is formed by a unique arrangement of contractile proteins called | thin & thick filaments |
| thin filament is composed of 2 proteins called | actin, troponin-tropomysomin complex |
| actin | contains binding sites for the myosin |
| myosin | thicker myosin filaments sits beteewn the thin filaments |
| myosin heads | extending from the thick myosin filaments are structures called |
| the arrangement of __________________ in each sarcomere gives skeletal and cardiac muscle their striated appearance | thin & thick filaments |
| muscles can only _____________ | PULL, not push |
| To pull muscles contract making them | shorten, because thin & thick filaments slide past each other causing the sarcomeres to shorten |
| myosin heads make contact with the myosin binding sites on the actin forming teporary connections called | cross bridges |
| Muscle relaxation occurs when the cross bridges | are broken and and the thin and thick filaments return to their original position |
| 2 aspects of muscle contraction | electrical, contractile |
| electrical muscle contraction | involves motor neuron and NM, results in calcium release from SR , happens first |
| contractile muscle contraction | involves actin and myosin, sliding filaments, happens second |
| ATP helps the ___________________ form and break cross bridges | myosin heads |
| ATP can only perform its role if _____________ is present | calcium |
| when the muscle is stimulated calcium is released from the _________________ and causes the actin, myosin, and the ATP to interact and slide | sarcoplasmic reticulum |
| calcium for muscle contraction use is stored in the | sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) |
| when calcium is pumped back to the SR away from the actin and myosin and the atp, the _______________ are broken and the muscle relaxes | cross bridges |
| skeletal muscle contraction can only take place when the muscle is first stimulated by a | nerve |
| the types of nerves that supply the the skeletal muscle is | somatic motor nerve |
| a motor nerve composed of many nerve cells is called | motor neurons |
| motor unit | consists of a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers that are supplied by the motor nueron |
| each muscle is innervated by many motor nuerons , thereby forming | many motor units |
| when MANY motor units are stimulated the result | is a stronger force of muscle contraction |
| when FEWER motor units are stimulated the result is | a weaker force of muscle contraction |
| recruitment | the more motor units activated the greater the force |
| neuromuscular junction (NMJ) | area where the motor nueron meets the muscle, it includes the membrane ends of the neuron, the space between the nueron and the muscle membrane, and the muscle membrane receptors |
| what happens at the NMJ? | the stimulated neuron causes the release of a chemical substance that diffuses across the NMJ and stimulates the muscle membrane |
| a single muscle fiber has a ___________________ response , but a whole muscle can vary its contraction | "all or nothing" |
| two characteristics of a whole muscle allow whole muscle contraction | motor unit, recruitment |
| motor unit | the nerve and innervated muscle fibers |
| neuromuscular junction (NMJ) | space between motor nueron and muscle, site of ACh action and activation of muscle membrane |
| electrical events in the NMJ 1 & 2 | electrical signal travels to axon terminal releasing ACh, ACh diffuses across NMJ |
| electrical events in the NMJ 3&4 | activated the muscle receptors, activatd receptors send electrical signals along muscle membranes and T tubules, electrical signal stimulates the SR to release calcium, iniating the sliding filament |
| impairment of the NMJ | myasthenia gravis, Curare, neurotoxins (Clostridium tetanus, Clostridium botulinum (botulism and Botox) |
| myasthenia gravis | is considered to be an autoimmune disorder, neuromuscular disorder , nerve implses fail to pass at myoneural junction causing muscular weakness, muscle tire and weaken easily, ur antibodies attack and destroy the acetylcholine needed for muscle contract |
| eyelid drooping , blurred or double vision | myasthenia gravis, many patient start out with this "ocular myasthenia" |
| small bundles of muscle fiber | fascicles |
| arranged in a seris within the microfibrils; extend from Z line to Z line | sarcomeres |
| cordlike structure that attaches to the bone | tendon |
| an extension of the sarcolemma that penetrates into the inferior of the muscle | sarcoplasmic reticulum |
| flat sheetlike fascia that attaches to the muscle to bone or muscle to muscle | aponeurosis |
| thin filament that extends from Z line to Z line toward the center of the sarcomere | actin |
| thick filament that forms crossbridges with the thin filaments | myosin |
| another name for muscle cell | muscle fiber |
| another name for the cell membrane | sarcolemma |
| flat muscle that wrinkles forhead | frontalis |
| chewing muscle that works synergetically with the temporalis muscle close to the jaw | masseter |
| smiling muscle | zygomaticus |
| abducts the arm into the scarecrow position | deltoid |
| antagonist to the biceps brachii | triceps brachii |
| flattens cheek as in blowing into a trumpet | buccinator |
| moves head back as in looking at the sky, shrugs shoulders | trapezius |
| flat fan shaped muscle that extends from the temporal bone to the mandible | temporalis |
| synergistic to the biceps brachii | brachialis |
| large flat muscle of the mid lower back , allows you to point to an object behind you | lattissimus dorsi |
| attaches to the breast bone, collar bone, and the temporal bone | sternocleidomastoid |
| large muscles on the anterior chest | pectoralis major |
| forms your personal shoulder pad | deltoid |
| "memory jogger" for abdominal muscles | TIRE |
| muscle culprit in torticollins | sternocleidomastoid |
| dome shaped muscle that seperates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity | diaphragm |
| large muscles located along the medial part of the thigh, horseback riders use it to grip the horse with their thighs | adductors |
| includes the internal oblique , transverse, and rectus | abdominal |
| largest muscle in the body that forms the buttocks , you sit on it | gluteus maximus |
| a group of muscles located on the anterior thigh, it extends the leg as in kicking a football | quadriceps femoris |
| the achilles tendon attaches the soleus and this muscle to the calcaneous | gastrocnemius |
| the muscle group on the posterior thigh, it acts anatgonistically to the quadriceps femoris muscle group | hamstrings |
| is the chief breathing muscle | gastrocnemis |
| includes the rectus, vastus lateralis, and vastus medialis | quadriceps femoris |
| included in the biceps femoris, semitendonosus, semimembranosus | hamstrings |
| the tendons of this muscle form the popliteal fossa | hamstrings |
| muscle that dorsiflexes the foot? | tibialis anterior |
| what muscle is striated and involuntary | cardiac muscle |
| type of muscle that requires stimulation by the somatic nerve | skeletal muscle |
| which of the following "slides" in the sliding filament hypothesis? | actin & myosin |
| causes the force generating cross bridges? | binding of the myosin head to the actin |
| considered contractile proteins, form force - generating cross bridges, sliding filaments | actin & myosin |
| muscle relation occurs when | calcium is pumped back in the sarcoplasmic reticulum |
| as the electrical signal travels through the T-tubules, it causes the | release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum |
| the somatic nerve that supplies the muscles of the thigh has been severed the person | cannot walk |
| recruitment | increase the force of muscle contraction |
| an event that occurs within the NMJ | binding of the ACh to the nicotonic receptor on muscle membrane |
| curare induced muscle blaockage at the Nm receptors | causes paralysis |
| creatine phosphate | is energy source for muscle contraction |
| contraction of the right steinocleidomastoid muscle | rotates the head on the radius |
| must be attached to the mandible | chewing muscles |
| biceps brachii, brachioradialisis, brachialis muscles | flex the forearm at the elbow |
| located on the posterior body | latissimus dorsi |
| located superior of the diaphragm | deltoid |
| where are the pronators and supinators located? | arm |
| what is the muscle group that can flex the leg at the knee and extend the thigh at the hip | hamstrings |
| keratin | a protein that flattens, hardens, and makes the cells water resistant |
| hypodermis | subcutaneous layer, made of adipose tissue |
| pigment that causes the summer tan | melanin |
| sweat glands | suderiferous |
| color change due to hypoexemia | cyanosis |
| pigment causes freckles & moles | melanin |
| oil glands that often develop blackheads , pimples, dandruff and cradle cap | sebacceous glands |
| ear wax | cerumen |
| apocrine & eccrine glands | suderiferous glands |
| contains the stratum germnativium | epidermis |
| supports the epidermis | dermis |
| insulating layer that maintains body temperature | hypodermis |
| cells are continuously dividing, pushing older cells toward the surface of the cutaneous membrane | stratum germinativum |
| is the outer most layer of the epidermis | stratum corneum |
| contains adipose tissue | subcutaneous layer |
| stratum germnativum | is the deeper and very active epidermal layer |
| skin plays a role in the intestinal absorption of calcium by | synthesizing Vitamin D |
| meloncytes | secrete a tanning pigment in response to exposure to sunlight |
| cyanosis | refers to a bluish color of the skin due to hypoxemia |
| alopecia refers to | loss of hair |
| sebacceous glands | are exocrine glands that secrete vernix to fetus |
| eccrine glands | sweat glands |
| apocrine glands | found in axillary and genital areas |
| verinix caseosa | a cream cheese like substance covering skin of fetus |
| hypothalamus | involved in thermoregulation |
| in order to lose heat flushing is generally accompained by | activation of eccrine glands |
| shivering | produces heat |
| why do we feel hotter on a hot humid day as opposed to a dry hot day? | decreases heat loss through evaporation |
| "cold baby warmed by BAT" involves | thermoregulation, brown fat, non shivering thermogenesis |
| rectal temperature | core temperature |
| consists of the bones, joints, and cartilage and ligaments associated with the joints | skeletal system |
| is living and metabolically active | bone tissue |
| appears dead or dried up because of the amount non living material such as calcium and phosphorus | bone tissue , skeletal system |
| contains 206 bones | skeletal system |
| comes from greek word dried up body | skeletal system |
| arranged to provide framework for or bodies | bones |
Created by:
rwheeler77