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A&P IV
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| 1.State the function of the glomerulus | |
| 2. Be able to identify labeled structures in fig 24.7a | |
| 3. State the function of the glomerulus, the PCT, the peritubular capillaries the DCT and the collecting duct | |
| 4.The mechanism that establishes the medullary osmotic gradient depends most on the permeability properties of the: | Loop of Henle |
| 5.Describe the path of the urine from the glomerulus to the outside: | Urine passes through the pelvis of the kidney to ureter to bladder to urethra |
| 6.Describe the components of Bowman's capsule | Consists of: a podocyte, a fenestrated capillary, an efferent arteriole |
| 7.An increase in the permeability of the cells of the collecting tubule to water is due to: | An increase in the production of ADH |
| 8.The urinary bladder is composed of ________ epithelium. | Transitional |
| 9.The kidneys are stimulated to produce rennin under what circumstances? | By a decrease in the blood pressure |
| 10.Blood vessels of the renal columns are called ____________ | Interlobar |
| 11.Which gland sits atop each kidney? | Adrenal |
| 12.The ________ artery lies on the boundary between the cortex and medulla of the kidney. | Arcuate |
| 13.The glomerulus differs from other capillaries in the body in that it: | Is drained by an efferent arteriole |
| 14.Describe the water and ion permeability of the loop of Henle: | THe Loop of Henle contains fluid that becomes more concentrated as it moves down into the medulla |
| 15.Describe the structure and motor function and innervation of the ureter. | The ureters are capable of peristalsis like that of the gastrointestinal tract. |
| 16.The fatty tissue surrounding the kidneys is important because: | It stabilizes the position of the kidneys by holding them in their normal position |
| 17.The renal corpuscle is made up of the: | Bowmanʹs capsule and glomerulus |
| 18.The functional and structural unit of the kidneys is: | The nephron |
| 19.The juxtaglomerular apparatus is responsible for: | Regulating the rate of filtrate formation and controlling systemic blood pressure |
| 20.The chief force pushing water and solutes out of the blood across the filtration membrane is: | Glomerular hydrostatic pressure (glomerular blood pressure) |
| 21.Describe the histology of the ureters. | They are trilayered (mucosa, muscularis, and adventitia) |
| 22.The first major branch of the renal artery is: | Segmental |
| 23.What acts as the trigger for the initiation of micturition (voiding)? | The stretching of the bladder wall serves as the trigger |
| 24.List the components of the filtration membrane: | Basement membrane,glomerular endothelium, and podocytes |
| 25.The mechanism of water reabsorption by the renal tubules is __________________ | Osmosis |
| 26.Describe electrolyte reabsorption by the renal tubules: | It is is hormonally controlled in distal tubule segments |
| 27.The macula densa cells respond to: | Changes in solute content of the filtrate |
| 28.List the materials that are reabsorbed by the proximal convoluted tubule: | Glucose, Na+, K+ |
| 29.The fluid in the glomerular (Bowman's) capsule is similar to plasma except that it does not contain a significant amount of: | Plasma protein |
| 30.Alcohol acts as a diuretic because it: | Inhibits the release of ADH |
| 31.The function of angiotensin II is to: | Constrict arterioles and Increase blood pressure |
| 32.An important characteristic of urine is its specific gravity or density, which is: | 1.001-1.035 |
| 33.What would happen if the capsular hydrostatic pressure were increased above normal? | Net filtration would decrease. |
| 34.List the parts of the juxtaglomerular apparatus: | Granular cells, mesanglial cells, macula densa |
| 35.Describe the process of tubular reabsorption: | By active mechanisms usually involves movement against an electrical and/or chemical gradient |
| 36.Describe the appearance and chemical composition of urine: | Urine has nitrogenous waste such as urea and uric acid |
| 37.Reabsorption of high levels of glucose and amino acids in the filtrate is accomplished by: | Secondary active transport |
| 38.While the kidneys process about 180 L of blood-derived fluids daily, the amount that actually leaves the body is: | 1%, or 1.8 L |
| 39.The factor favoring filtrate formation at the glomerulus is: | The glomerular hydrostatic pressure |
| 40.If the Tm for a particular amino acid is 120 mg/100 ml and the concentration of that amino acid in the blood is 230 mg/100 ml, the amino acid will _______________ | Appear in the urine |
| 41.If one says that the clearance value of glucose is zero, what does this mean? | Normally all the glucose is reabsorbed. |
| 42.Excretion of dilute urine requires: | Impermeability of the collecting tubule to water |
| 43.Describe the path of a red blood cell entering the kidney through the renal artery and exiting through the renal vein. | Segmental to interlobar to arcuate to cortical radiate |
| 44.Compare and contrast the thin and thick segments of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle: | The thick segment moves ions out into interstitial spaces for reabsorption |
| 45.The disruption in homeostasis known as pyelitis is: | An infection of the renal pelvis and calyces |
| 46.The capillary bed that surrounds the descending and ascending loop of Henle is called the ________. | Vasa recta |
| 47.Abnormally low output of urine is called ________. | Anuria (oliguria) |
| 48.Urine crystals in the renal pelvis are called ________. | Renal Calculi |
| 49.The areas on either side of the renal pyramids are called the renal ________. | Cortical Arch |
| 50.The area between the ureters and urethra is called the ________ in a bladder. | Trigone |
| 51.The ________ mechanism is the general tendency of vascular smooth muscle to contract when stretched. | Myogenic |
| 52.The renal clearance rate equation is RC = ________. | UV/P |
| 53.The presence of pus in the urine is a condition called ________. | Pyuria |
| 54.Sodium-linked water flow across a membrane is called ________ water reabsorption. | Obligatory |
| 55.Explain the path of the blood vessels in the kidney | The renal artery divides into smaller segmental arteries, which in turn branch into lobar arteries. Lobararteries branch and enter the columns as interlobar, then turn and follow the cortex-medulla boundary as arcuate arteries. Cortical radiate arte |
| 56.Explain how filtration works in the glomerular capillaries. | The glomerular capillaries are fenestrated, allowing fairly large molecules to pass through. The substances must pass through the basement membrane, where they are further selected for size by the filtration slits of the podocytes. |
| 57. List three substances that are abnormal urinary constituents and provide the proper clinical term for such abnormalities. | glucose (glycosuria), proteins (proteinuria or albuminuria), ketone bodies (ketonuria), hemoglobin (hemoglobinuria), bile pigments (bilirubinuria), erythrocytes (hematuria), and leukocytes (pyuria) GPKHBEL |
| 58.Explain the role of aldosterone in sodium and water balance. | Aldesterone enhances sodium ion reabsorption,causes increased water reabsorption |
| 59.Explain what is meant by the terms cotransport process and transport maximum. | Transport maximum reflects the number of carriers in the renal tubules available to "ferry" a particular substance. |
| 60.Humans can survive for a period of time without water thanks to the ability of the kidneys to produce concentrated urine. Briefly explain what factors allow this to happen. | water reabsorption depends on the presence of antidiuretic hormone. When ADH is present, collecting tubule pores enlarge & the filtrate loses water.water is then conserved and urine becomes concentrated. The water that passes through these regions is rea |
| 61.List and describe three pressures operating at the filtration membrane, and explain how each influences net filtration pressure. | Glomerular hydrostatic pressure. Colloid osmotic pressure.capsular hydrostatic pressure |
| 62. In addition to the renin-angiotensin mechanism, the renal cells produce other chemicals. Name five, and briefly give the main function of each. | prostaglandins (vasodilators and vasoconstrictors), nitric oxide, adenosine, endothelin |
| 63.What are aquaporins? | Aquaporins are water-filled pores in water permeable portions of the convoluted tubules such as the PCT. |
| 64.Freshly voided urine has very little smell, but shortly after voiding it can take a very strong smell, why? | Freshly voided urine is relatively sterile but if it is allowed to stand, bacteria begin to metabolize the urea solutes to release ammonia and other smells depending on the person's diet. A fruity smell generally means there is a diabetes problem. |
| 65.Define the following terms: Electrolytes, Nonelectrolytes, Extracellular,Intracellular, and Interstitial | |
| 66. Define the following terms: Hypermagnesemia, Hypocalcemia, Hypernatremia, Hyperkalemia, and Hyponatremia | |
| 67. Define the following terms: Edema, hypoproteinemia, Addison's disease, Aldosterone, and Osmoreceptors | |
| 68.In which compartments are the following electrolytes highest in concentration: Sodium ions, Potassium ions, Phosphate ions, Bicarbonate ions, and Proteins | Potassium Ions (K+) |
| 69.Water occupies two main fluid compartments within the body, the intracellular fluid compartment and the extracellular fluid compartment. How do the fluid volumes of these compartments compare | Intracellular Fluid is 2/3 water (largest in body). |
| 70.Edema may result from ______ | Renal Failure |
| 71.The fluid link between the external and internal environment is ______ | Plasma |
| 72.Whereas sodium is found mainly in the extracellular fluid, most ________ is found in the intracellular fluid. | Potassium (K+) |
| 73.Describe the distribution of sodium and potassium between cells and body fluids? | K+ mainly in the cells, Na+ in the body fluids |
| 74.The single most important factor influencing potassium ion secretion is ______ | Potassium ion concentration in blood plasma |
| 75.What regulates the movement of fluids between cellular compartments? | Osmotic and Hydrostatic forces |
| 76.Describe the maintenance of electrolyte balance and the factors which may disrupt it. | May be disturbed due to higher loss of electrolytes on hot days |
| 77.Describe the role of Parathyroid hormone | It is the most important control of calcium homeostasis |
| 78.Extracellular fluid in the human body is composed of: | Lymph and interstitial fluid, blood plasma,cerebrospinal fluidr |
| 79.Describe the causes of fluid shifts? | Electrolytes have greater osmotic power than nonelectrolytes and therefore have the greatest ability to cause fluid shifts. |
| 80.Which hormones are important in stimulating water conservation in the kidneys? The total body water is divided into intracellular and extracellular fluids. Plasma is considered: | Antidiuretic hormone |
| 81.Disorders of water balance include: | hypotonic hydration, edema or tissue swelling, excess water in interstitial spaces due to a low level of plasma proteins |
| 82.Describe the mechanisms and consequences of the regulation of sodium. | It is linked to blood pressure |
| 83.One of the major physiological factors that triggers thirst is ______ | A rise in plasma osmolarity |
| 84.Annie has just eaten a large order of heavily salted french fries, some pickled eggs, and some cheese. How will consuming this much salt affect her physiology? | There will be a temporary increase in blood volume |
| 85.The most important force causing net water flow across capillary walls is: ______ | Hydrostatic pressure of capillary blood |
| 86.List those functions that depend on the presence of electrolytes? | Membrane polarity,neuromuscular excitability, maintenance of osmotic relations between cells and EC |
| 87.Describe the regulation of potassium balance: | It involves aldosterone-induced secretion of potassium |
| 88.The term hypotonic hydration refers to: | A condition that may result from renal Insufficiency or drinking extraordinary amounts of water |
| 89.Hypoproteinemia is a condition of unusually low levels of plasma proteins. This problem is often characterized by: | Tissue edema |
| 90.Which hormones are important in the regulation of sodium ion concentrations in the extracellular fluid? | Aldosterone |
| 91.Atrial natriuretic peptide is a hormone that is made in the atria of the heart. The influence of this hormone is: | Reduce blood pressure and blood volume by inhibiting sodium and water retention |
| 92.The female hormone ________ seems to decrease sodium reabsorption, thus promoting sodium and water loss by the kidney. | Progesterone |
| 93.The preferred intracellular negative ion is ________. | Hydrogen phosphate |
| 94.The most important hormone that regulates calcium ions in the body is ________ | PTH (parathyroid hormone) |
| 95.________ reduces blood pressure and volume by inhibiting nearly all events that promote vasoconstriction and the retention of sodium ions and water. | Atrial natriuretic peptide |
| 96.Molecules that can act reversibly as acids or bases depending upon the pH of their environment are called ______. | Amphoteric |
| 97.Describe the influence of rising PTH levels on bone, the small intestine, and the kidneys. | PTH activates osteoclasts that breaks down the bone matrix, resulting in the release of Ca2+ and PO34- to the blood • •PTH increases the reabsorption of calcium by the renal tubules, which simultaneously decrease phosphate ion reabsorption |
| 98.A patient is breathing slowly and blood pH analysis indicates an abnormally high value. What is the likely diagnosis? | Metabolic alkalosis |
| 99. Blood analysis indicates a low pH, and the patient is breathing rapidly. Given your knowledge of acid-base balance, which of the following is most likely? | Metabolic acidosis |
| 100.The maintenance of the proper pH of the body fluids may be the result of ________. | the control of respiratory ventilation |
| 101.Describe renal mechanisms of acid/base balance | Kidney tubule cells are able to synthesize bicarbonate ion. |
| 102.When the blood becomes hypertonic (too many solutes), ADH is released. What is the effect of ADH on the kidney tubules? | ADH causes the kidney tubules to reabsorb excess water, resulting in the excretion of concentrated urine. |
| 103.When does a person experience greater thirst, during periods when ADH release is elicited or during periods when aldosterone release is elicited? | When ADH release is elicited |
| 104.Be able to identify the labeled structures in fig 26.8c | |
| 105. Be able to identify the structure of a fully mature sperm (fig 26.9-7) | |
| 106. Be able to identify the labeled structures in fig 26.12 | |
| 107. The dartos and cremaster muscles are important to the integrity of the male reproductive system. Describe the role they play? | Regulate the temperature of the testes |
| 108.The ability of sperm cells to move along the ductus deferens is due to: | peristaltic contractions |
| 109.The ability of a male to ejaculate is due to the action of: | the bulbospongiosus muscles |
| 110.The most important risk factor for testicular cancer in young males is: | Nondescent of the testes |
| 111.Which gland is responsible for 60% of the synthesis of semen? | The seminal vesicles |
| 112.Which hormone controls the release of anterior pituitary gonadotropins? | GnRH |
| 113.Development of male reproductive structures depends on ________________ | Secretion of male hormones prenatally and lasting into the first few months after birth |
| 114.The primary function of the uterus is to: | receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized ovum |
| 115.The corpus luteum is: | The ruptured follicle following the ejection of an oocyte from the ovary |
| 116.The structures that receive the ovulated oocyte, providing a site for fertilization, are called: | The fallopian tubes |
| 117.The female counterpart of the male scrotum is the ________________ | Labia Majora |
| 118.Human egg and sperm are similar in what way | They have the same number of chromosomes |
| 119.The constancy of the chromosome number from one cell generation to the next is maintained through: | Meiosis |
| 120.Fertilization generally occurs in the: | Fallopian tubes |
| 121.Spermiogenesis involves: | The formation of a functional sperm by the stripping away of superfluous cytoplasm |
| 122.List the male secondary sex characteristics | development of body hair, lowering of the voice, increasing mass of the skeleton |
| 123.In humans, separation of the cells at the two-cell state following fertilization may lead to the production of ____________ twins | identical |
| 124.Describe the characteristics of mature sperm | the presence of Y chromosomes in approximately half the sperm |
| 125.Describe the functions of testosterone | Facilitation of muscle and skeletal growth in mass |
| 126.Describe the effects of estrogen | Growth of the breasts at puberty |
| 127.Secretion of progesterone stimulates: | Preparation of the mammary glands for lactation |
| 128.Describe the structure and function of sperm. | They contain very little cytoplasm or stored nutrients.The acrosome is produced by the Golgi apparatus and contains hydrolytic enzymes.The sperm midpiece consists of Golgi bodies spiraled tightly around the contractile filaments of the tail |
| 129.The cells that produce testosterone in the testis are called: | Interstitial cells |
| 130.The testicular cells that construct the blood-testis barrier are the: | Sustentacular cells |
| 131.Erection of the penis results from: | A spinal reflex mediated by the parasympathetic nervous system |
| 132.Describe the proliferative phases of the female menstrual cycle? | cervical mucus becomes thin and crystalline, ovulation, and development of endometrial cells |
| 133.Describe the structure of the testis and the function of individual tissues. | The testis is surrounded by the tunica vaginalis. |
| 134.Describe the vascular and neural components of the male sexual response. | Erection is the result of vascular spaces in the erectile tissues filling with blood |
| 135.Describe the gross and tissue level structure of the ovaries: | Are surrounded by the tunica albuginea |
| 136.Describe the gross and tissue level structure of the mammary glands. | The breasts of most nonpregnant females are composed of fat and connective tissue. |
| 137.What happens during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle: | Progesterone levels are at their highest |
| 138.Describe the hormonal and structural changes of the uterine cycle. | If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum is maintained by a hormone secreted by the developing embryo. |
| 139.What mechanism divides the testes into lobules? | Septal extensions of the tunica albuginea |
| 140.What do the mammary glands of both males and females have in common? | The mammary glands are modified sweat glands that are actually part of the integumentary system. |
| 141.Normally menstruation occurs when: | Blood levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease |
| 142.The basic difference between spermatogenesis and oogenesis is that: | In ogenesis, one mature ovum is produced, and in spermatogenesis four mature sperm are prooduced from the parent cell |
| 143.Occasionally three polar bodies are found clinging to the mature ovum. One came from an unequal division of the ovum, but from where did the other two arise? | The first polar body has also divided to produce two polar bodies. |
| 144.What occurs after ovulation? | The endometrium enters its secretory phase |
| 145.Describe the structure and function of the seminal vesicles: | Produce a yellowish fluid rich in fructose |
| 146.Define and describe spermatogenesis: | It involves a kind of cell division limited to the gametes |
| 147.Describe the role of the brain-testicular axis: | It involves FSH and LH release |
| 148.Describe the process of control of testosterone secretion. | GnRh from the hypothalamus causes FSH and LH release from the anterior pituitary. |
| 149.Describe the structure and function of the uterine tubes? | The infundibulum is the funnel-shaped region near the ovary. |
| 150.Describe the hormonal events of the ovarian cycle. | High estrogen levels result in a surge of LH release |
| 151.Describe the pathogens which cause the common sexually transmitted diseases | Chlamydia is caused by bacteria that can bring on a wide variety of nonfatal but uncomfortable symptoms. Gonorrhea is caused by a bacteria that can bring on very painful discharges. Syphilis is caused by a virus that may lead to death if untreated. |
| 152.A boy who has not passed through puberty sustains an injury to his anterior pituitary such that FSH is no longer released, but LH is normal. After he grows to maturity, one would expect that he would: | Be sterile |
| 153.A low secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) in the normal male adult would cause: | Decreased testosterone secretion |
| 154.List the components of the duct system of the male reproductive system | The ductus deferens, a duct that runs from the epididymis |
| 155.The ________ plexus of testicular veins assists in cooling the testis. | Pampiniform |
| 156.Surgical cutting of the ductus deferens as a form of birth control is called a ________. | Vasectomy |
| 157.The erectile tissue around the urethra is the corpus ________. | Spongiosum |
| 158.The midpiece of the sperm tail contains mostly ________. | Mitochondria |
| 159.The ________ cells of the testis nourish the newly formed sperm cells. | Sustentacular |
| 160.The suspensory and mesovarium ligaments are part of the ________ ligament. | Broad |
| 161.A follicle with only small antrums in it would be classified as a ________ follicle. | Secondary |
| 162.The small opening of the uterus that sperm would first enter is called the ________. | external os |
| 163.The portion of the uterine endometrium that is not sloughed off every month is called the ________. | Stratum basalis |
| 164.________ is caused by Treponema pallidum. | Syphilis |
| 165.What are some risk factors for developing breast cancer? | (1) early onset of menses and late menopause; (2) first pregnancy late in life or no pregnancies at all; (3) familial history of breast cancer(4) postmenopausal hormone replacement. |
| 166.What is the name given to the female homologue to the penis? | Clitoris |
| 167.Describe the composition and functional roles of semen. | Semen is a fluid mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions (prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral). The liquid provides a transport medium for nutrients and contains chemicals that protect the sperm and facilitate their movements. |
| 168.Explain the function of the myometrium and endometrium. | The myometrium plays an active role during childbirth when it contracts rhythmically to force the baby out of the mother's body. The endometrium is the innermost lining of the uterus where the embryo implants and stays for the rest of its development |
| 169.What signals the corpus luteum to continue producing hormones if the oocyte is fertilized? | Once the embryo has implanted, it sends out its own hormone (human chorionic gonadotropin) |
| 170.What is the purpose of the male bulbourethral gland? | it releases its contents prior to ejaculation, its function is probably to neutralize the acids in the vagina |
| 171.What is the physiological importance of the fact that the male testes descend to reside in the scrotal sac? | So that a fairly constant intrascrotal temperature is maintained |
| 172.Ovulation occurs when the oocyte is released into the peritoneal cavity. By what means does it usually enter the fallopian tube? | Fimbriae, which drape over the ovary |
| 173.Assume that a woman could be an "on-demand" ovulator like a rabbit, in which copulation stimulates the hypothalamic-AP axis and causes LH release and an oocyte was ovulated and fertilized on day 26 of her 28-day cycle. Why would a successful pregnanc | A successful pregnancy would be unlikely at this time because progesterone levels have fallen |
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