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Comparative Politics
Exam 1
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Comparative Politics | is the study and comparison of domestic politics across countries (such as elections, political parties, revolutions, and judicial systems). It compares the pursuit of power (i.e. politics) across countries |
| International relations | concentrates on relations between countries |
| Political science examines | institutions because they define what is possible in political life by laying out the rules and structures of how politics operates |
| Politics | the struggle in any group or power that will give one or more persons the ability to make decisions for the larger group |
| Power | is the ability to influence others or impose ones will on them |
| Comparative Method | is a way to make comparisons and draw conclusions across case studies |
| Inductive Reasoning | is when you go from studying a case to generating a hypothesis; it tends to be a foundation on which we build greater theories in CP |
| Deductive Reasoning | works from a hypothesis and tests this with data. It is starting with a puzzle and from there generating some hypothesis about cause and effect to test against a number of cases |
| Seven Challenges Comparativists Face When Examining Political Features Across Countries | 1. Difficulty controlling the variables 2. Interaction between the variables themselves--multicausality 3. Limits to our information and information gathering 4. How we access the few cases we do have 5. Cases tend to be limited to a single geographic |
| Multicausality | When many variables are tied together to produce particular outcomes |
| Endogeneity | problem distinguishing between cause and effect; ; even if we have found cause and effect, we can’t easily ascertain which is which |
| Selection bias | focusing on an area because of the convenience of travel or knowledge of its language and not others' |
| Two World Wars and the Cold War were turning points in CP. They caused: | 1. Move in the university to apply more rigorous methods to study human behavior 2. Rose questions about the ability of scholars to meaningfully contribute to an understanding of world affairs 3. Due to nuclear weapons 4. Technological innovations |
| Modernization theory | This theory holds that as societies develop they become capitalist democracies, converging around a set of shared values and characteristics |
| Behavorial revolution | the subject of investigation shifted away from political institutions (such as legislatures and constitutions) and toward individual political behavior. |
| What did behavioralism hope to accomplish? | to generate theories and generalizations that could help explain and even predict political activity; ideally, this work would eventually lead to a “grand theory” of political behavior and modernization that would be valid across countries |
| Qualitative evidence | are things such as interviews, observations, surveys, and other forms of documentary research that focuses on deep investigation into one or a few cases; typically inductive, beg. with case studies in order to generate a theory |
| Quantitative method | gathering of statistical data across many countries to look for correlations and test hypotheses about cause and effect; methodology is more likely to use deductive reasoning, starting with a theory that can be tested with an array of data |
| Rational choice or Game Theory | is to study the rules and games by which politics is played and how human beings act on their preferences, such as voting, choosing political parties, etc. and is closely related to quantitative methods |
| Institutions | exemplify a country's ideals and shapes the outcomes of its politics and society. They are organizations or patterns of activity that are self-perpetuating and valued for their own sake. |
| Why are institutions important? | Because they embody norms or values that are considered central to people's lives and thus not easily dislodged or changed. People see them as central to their lives and therefore the institution commands and generates legitimacy. |
| Formal institutions | Officially sanctioned rules |
| Informal institutions | Unwritten and unofficial rules, but no less powerful |
| What do institutions embody? | the rules, norms, and values that give meaning to human life |
| Why are institutions hard to eliminate? | because they are embedded in each of us, how we see the world, and what we think is valuable or important. When they are threatened, people rush to their defense and even recreate them when they are shattered; this bond is the glue of society. |
| Why do institutions set the stage for political behavior? | Because they generate norms and values, they favor and allow certain kinds of political activity and not others, making a more likely “path” for political activity – i.e. path dependence |
| Freedom | is the ability of an individual to act independently, free of retribution from the state or other individuals; At a basic level it connotes autonomy; in the modern world it encompasses such concepts as free speech, assembly, religion, & civil liberties |
| Equality | refers to a shared material standard of individuals within a community, society, or country |
| Balance of Freedom and Equality | If institutions shape how the game of politics is played, then the goal of the game is the right mix of freedom and equality |
| Justice or Injustice | a measure of whether our ideals have been met |
| Results of Increase in Equality | Ex. A focus on equality may erode freedom because this may lead a government to take greater control of private property and personal wealth, all in the name of redistribution for the “greater good” |
| Results of Increase in Freedom | implies a smaller role for the state; limits a state's powers to do such things as redistribute income through welfare and taxes; as a result, inequality may increase as individual freedom trumps the desire for greater collective equality |
| 3 Types of Political Knowledge | 1. Description - what 2. Explanation - how and why 3. Prescription - what should occur and what should be done |
| 3 Sources of Political Knowledge | 1. Authority 2. Personal thought (rationality, intuition, personal experience) 3. Science |
| 4 Essential Characteristics of the Scientific Method | 1. Regularities 2. Empirical 3. Cumulative 4. Testable |
| Why do some people argue that political science is not a real science? | 1. Too value laden 2. Too complex 3. No coherent set of rules, theories, and concepts of interpretation 4. Cannot answer the most important questions |
| Political science is real--why? (PART 1) | Scientific method encourages researchers to be aware of value biases and make assumptions as transparently as possible. While the political world is complex, few events are truly random (the physical world may be even more complex) |
| Political science is real--why? (PART 2) | - Every scientific discipline has disagreements over concepts, methods, and theories - Scientific method helps us understand the basis of our normative judgments – what, how, why |
| Benefits of quantitative method | 1. Can look at a number of cases 2. Can control variables more easily 3. More "scientific" |
| Drawbacks of quantitative method | Data may be skewed or incomplete Research driven by what data are available |
| Benefits and Drawbacks: Qualitative | 1. Intensive study of cases to acquire deeper grasp of political concept Drawbacks - result is often only descriptive rather than comparative when analyzing |
| Legitimate | Commands authority and dictates behavior |
| Economic freedom vs. economic equality | You can’t have political equality unless you have economic equality (i.e. meeting with a Congressman if you have more money is easier if you donate less) |
| Can you have both high freedom and high equality? | This is a subjective question. It depends on the type of freedom and type of equality. |
| State | is a series of institutions that maintains a monopoly of violence over a territory. It relies on sovereignty—the ability to carry out actions in a territory independently—and power. |
| What does a state rely on? | It relies on (1) sovereignty—the ability to carry out actions in a territory independently—and (2) power. |
| Regime | the fundamental rules and norms of politics; can be changed by dramatic social events such as a revolution, categorized at the most basic level as either democratic or authoritarian, often embodied by a constitution; highly institutionalized |
| Government | leadership in charge of running that state; weakly institutionalized because they come and go, while regimes and states usually have more staying power |
| Monopoly of legitimate violence | the capability of upholding laws using army and police force |
| Sovereignty | ability to carry out actions independently of internal AND external challengers |
| What defines a state? | 1. Population 2. Defined territory 3. Other states recognize it to be a state 4. Monopoly of legitimate violence 5. Must be sovereign 6. Government 7. Institution that uses force to ensure protection from internal & external threats |
| Beginning fo the modern nation state | Treaty of Westfalia |
| 3 Phases of European state formation | 1. Consolidation of rule 2. Rationalization of rule 3. Expansion of rule (ex. Fire and police, government funded research, libraries and schools) |
| How do we compare and evaluate states? | 1. Relative centralization of power 2. Forms of legitimacy |
| Max Weber's forms of legitimacy | 1. Traditional 2. Charismatic 3. Rational-Legal |
| Traditional legitimacy rests on | habits and customs |
| Unitary state | where the power is located centrally, ex. China, France |
| Examples of a Federal State | Ex. United States is called a federal state because the powers are defined by constitution Ex. Canada Ex. Mexico |
| Federal State | A state where significant powers are devolved to the local level by constitution and not easily taken away |
| State power is often analyzed in terms of _________ and _________. | Autonomy and capacity |
| Failed State | A state with an extremely low level of autonomy and capacity |
| States in Africa are noted for having | both a low degree of autonomy and capacity |
| The state execution of large and controversial projects, like the Three Gorges Dam in China, can be viewed as a result of: | High autonomy and high capacity |
| Capacity | the ability to carry out different functions; its ability to wield power to carry out policies or actions such as providing security, freedom, and equality |
| Autonomy | carry out actions/wield that power without having to consult the public or another outside body; Autonomy means self-rule, but the name implies some sort of subservience to a greater power. |
| High capacity and low autonomy | The US because it has the ability to carry out different functions but its rulers are responsible to voters, public opinion/law; state is able to fulfill basic tasks, but public opinion plays a direct role in deter. policy & is able to limit state power |
| Scope of State Functions | the scope of things the state ATTEMPTS AND WANTS TO DO |
| Conflict between the individual and collective caused by: | 1. Human innovations like technology 2. Trade 3. Agriculture |
| The state followed: | the inherent conflict between people as it intersected with agricultural technology, population density, and urbanization |
| Democratic Rule | Consensus--people band together to protect themselves and create common rules, leadership is chosen, and security through cooperation |
| Authoritarian Rule | Coercion--individuals brought together by a ruler who imposes authority and monopolizes power. Security through domination. |
| State offers what 3 advantages over other organizations? | 1. Property Rights 2. Set the stage for modern capitalism 3. Focus on infrastructure and legal codes fostered a more cohesive nationalist spirit which reduced local rivalries |
| Traditional legitimacy | the state has certain authority to carry out certain tasks built on history and continuity; built by a habit or custom over time, stressing history and strongly institutionalized; ex. Queen Elizabeth, monarch |
| Charismatic legitimacy | the state has certain authority to carry out tasks embodied in a powerful and inspiring individual; built on the force of ideas and the presence of the leader (weakly institutionalized); ex. revolutionary lead Vladimir Lenin |
| Rational-legal legitimacy | the state has certain authority to carry out tasks built on a foundation of highly institutionalized laws; built on the rules, procedures, and offices that create and enforce those rules; ex. elected executive Obama |
| Federalism | where significant powers reside in regional or local authorities; power is devolved to local authorities and not easily taken away |
| Disadvantages of federalism | 1. Weakens state efficiency by dividing power unevenly bet. too many competing bodies 2. Exacerbates regional or ethnic conflict |
| Define asymmetric federalism and give 2 examples | whereby power is divided unevenly between regional bodies and some are given greater power over taxation (ex. Spain and Russia) |
| Devolution | decentralization; increases state legitimacy by moving political power closer to the people, resolve problems like ethnic or religious differences by giving greater local powers to regions where they are predominant |
| Strong states | ones that can fulfill basic functions and enforce rules, ex. defend territory and enforce rules, collect taxes |
| Weak states | ones that cannot execute basic functions, is not institutionalized, and lacks authority and legitimacy--most extreme cases are failed states |
| Dangers of High Autonomy and Capacity | May prevent or undermine democracy |
| Dangers of High Capacity and Low Autonomy (US) | State may be unable to develop new policies or respond to new challenges owing to the power of organized opposition |
| Dangers of Low Autonomy and Capacity | May lead to internal state failure |
| Dangers of Low Capacity and High Autonomy | State is able to function w. minimimal public interference, but its capacity to fulfill basic tasks is limited; ineffectual, limiting development, and slow development may provoke public unrest |
| Ethnic identity | specific attributes that make one group of people culturally different |
| Scholars believe that ethnicity and nationality are: | socially constructed |
| What is a nation? | A political community unified by a set of social and cultural bonds; Is a group of people who have a political goal of autonomy/independence; we have nations that are spread out and do not occupy a definite territory |
| 1. What is the difference between a nation and an ethnic group? 2. Can a nation comprise more than one ethnic group? | A nation can be comprised of more than one ethnic group. If any group has common cultural and a common goal of political autonomy, then they comprise a nation. |
| Where does national identity form? | Depends on where you’re born and from INSTITUTIONS… and from your social influences like parents and peers |
| Can you have an ethnic identity without a national identity? | Yes, you can have an ethnic identity that is not related to your national identity |
| National identity without ethnic identity? | Yes |
| Citizenship | an individual's or group's relationship with the state; the notion that the state and the people are bound by a set of mutual responsibilities. |
| Patriotism | defined as pride in one's state, and is born out of citizenship. Many people seek to defend and promote the state. |
| Ethnic conflict | is the struggle between groups to achieve economic/political goals at another group's expense (superiority) |
| National conflict | is the struggle between groups for political independence (sovereignty); violence is a common tool |
| Artificial state | Countries whose territorial divisions don't coincide with ethnic or national groups |
| How to resolve conflict? | 1. Integrating groups—assimilation 2. Separating groups 3. Greater decentralization of power to give different groups more autonomy 4. Devolution--Scotland, Wales, & NI all have their own parliaments and judiciaries in order to resolve national conflic |
| Liberals | seek evolutionary change; don't want fast change |
| Conservatives | seek little or no change of system |
| Radicals | seek revolutionary change, violently if necessary |
| Reactionaries | seek to restore previous order, violently if necessary |
| Political Ideology | A comprehensive set of beliefs about the political world--about desirable political goals and the best ways to achieve these goals |
| Socialism | hopes to achieve economic equality, but strives to do so through private ownership and market forces; Beveridge (promote equality and freedom) |
| Communism | seeks to achieve equality through state control of economic resources, property, labor, and trade, and guarantees employment, healthcare, education, etc.; Mao, Marx, Lenin (promote collective equality over individual freedom) |
| Classical Conservatism | Predominant in most of the world, especially in the UK; liberal ideals were in reaction to classical conservatism. Based on nobility – we have obligations to the people and town, but believe they're superior to them socially & politically; suffrage |
| Suffrage | the right to vote |
| “Civil society” and “Res Publica” represent what? | 1. represents FREEDOM 2. represents EQUALITY |
| Fascism | Less freedom, less equality. Pay more attention to people as an organism, and that people is the “state”; everything is done for the glory of the state; three famous Fascist states: Italy (Mussolini), Spain (Francisco Franco), Germany (Nazi) |
| Anarchism | rejects the notion of government altogether (more freedom, more equality) |
| Social democracy | favoring greater state role in limiting inequality and favoring limited state role in the economy |
| Fundamentalism | is an ideology that seeks to unite religion with the state. Its emergence is a modern phenomenon; a reaction to forces in the modern world that are deemed corrupt or morally bankrupt--for ex. material consumption, sex, or entertainment |
| Conservative Islam | Upholds the values of property, hierarchy, authority, family; enforcement through law and government policy. Ex. Saudi Arabia |
| Radical (Fundamentalist) Islam | Revolutionary (reactionary?)-aims to overthrow infidel governments by force and impose an Islamic state; Iran (fundamentally ties state and religion together) |
| Modernism | Draws on Islam for general ethical and legal guidance; does not aim for an Islamic state or deriving strict rules from sacred sources; is inclined to democracy; ex. Tunisia, Pakistan, Jordan, Iraq |
| Examples of Political Culture | 1. Italy - emotional and excited about politics 2. Russia - extremely corrupt A factor that determines which ideologies dominates a country’s political regime |
| Characteristics of ethnicity and society | 1. It is assigned at birth. 2. Can provide social solidarity & generate greater equality. 3. There is no “master list” of differences that automatically define one group as ethnically different from another. 4. Ethnicity is not inherently political. |
| Political attitudes | Liberal, Reactionary, Conservative, Radical |
| The key difference between ethnic conflict and national conflict is that ethnic conflict | occurs between ethnic groups to achieve political or economic goals; national conflict involves one or more groups striving for sovereignty. |
| A societal explanation for why conflicts occur would argue that conflict emerges | due to the number of ethnic groups in the society and their degree of integration or polarization. |
| To try to deal with its extreme diversity, India has created a system of asymmetric federalism, which has devolved power differently across its states. What has been one consequence of this decision? | It has created more opportunities for corruption. |
| Pride in one’s people and the belief that they have their own sovereign destiny that is separate from others is called | nationalism |
| Despite recent economic crises, the two political economic systems that remain the most prevalent type around the globe are | Liberalism and Social Democracy |
| According to the section on Japan’s economic decline, what lesson should we learn from this case? | Any set of political-economic systems that work well under some conditions can still become out of sync as a result of broader changes over time. |
| The United States is best classified under which political economic system? | Liberalism |
| Globalization | The increasing international integration of markets and technologies |
| Globalization 2 | The increasing integration of diverse economic, sociocultural, military, and environmental phenomena by means of dense networks of action and information that rapidly span vast distances around the world |
| Political Economy | study of how politics and economies are related; how their relationship shapes the balance of freedom and equality |
| Supply and demand | the basic economic principle in which price is determined by how much consumers want a given product |
| ______ are two of the most fundamental components of political economy | markets and property |
| Market | the interaction between the forces of supply and demand that allocate resources |
| Market forces typically require the state to... | 1. enforce contracts 2. sanction activity 3. regulate supply and demand where necessary |
| Property Rights | - Must be created and enforced by the state - States vary on how they construct and enforce property rights - Fail to enforce laws - Assume property rights for themselves |
| Public Goods | goods used by all or most in society, that no one person can own |
| Social Expenditures | - State’s provision of public benefits: e.g., education, social security, health care, transportation, food assistance, unemployment insurance - Commonly called “welfare” or the “welfare state” - Can be very costly, especially where population is aging |
| The state is charged with managing | 1. Markets 2. Property 3. Public Benefits 4. Economic growth They do this through the creation and management of money |
| Economic Regulation | States may control the prices for goods or services, such as food or energy; may control which firms operate in which markets (ex. private monopolies, state monopolies, state-granted monopolies) |
| 13. Restrictions that make it difficult to sell foreign goods in local markets are examples of _________. | Nontariff barriers |
| In a market economy, the factors of production are controlled primarily by | private economic actors |
| Liberalism’s view of the relationship between freedom and equality is to favor: | freedom over equality |
| Are democracies and free markets inseparable? | Yes! You can have a free market without a democracy. But it’s hard to find a democracy without a free market. |
| A state that attempts to balance freedom and equality through regulation of the economy and measures to balance freedom and equality within a capitalist framework is known as a ______ state: | social democratic (Sweden, Norway) |
| Mixed Economy | most key infrastructure systems and financial resources are owned by individuals. |
| Command economy | the value of goods and services is determined by what the state deems appropriate. |
| Communism | - Seeks to eliminate economic differences - Private property is nationalized - Market forces are eliminated – economic decision making is entrusted entirely to the state – creates a “command economy” |
| Which political economic system views the economy as an instrument to serve state power and national sovereignty? | Mercantilism |
| Mercantilism is best associated with which of the following policies? | Tariff barriers |
| Mercantilism | - Mercantilism focuses on the needs of the state - Not concerned with either freedom or equality - National economic power is paramount - Economy serves needs of state by generating wealth that can be used for national political power |
| How do mercantilist states seek economic power? | - Gvts direct the economy toward certain industries through subsidies and taxation - Partial or full state ownership of critical industries (parastatals). - Emphasis on exports - Low social expenditures & low taxation/low interest rates |
| Examples of mercantilist states | Ex. Japan – industries: fish, cars, steel (the best quality steel in the world), electronics (ex. Microchips- world’s largest producer) Ex. South East Asian states |
| Parastatals are commonly associated with which political economic systems? | mercantilism and social democracy |
| Gross Domestic Product (GDP) | the total value of all final goods produced within a state's territorial boundaries. |
| Limitations of GDP | 1. Natural disaster may see GDP go up as a result of increased economic activity to rebuild 2. High crime might increase GDP 3. Does not take into account costs of economic growth 4. Does not tell us how wealth is distributed (issue of inequality) |
| Gini Index | measures inequality |
| Human Development Index (HDI) | measures the well-being of a country’s people: - Educational enrollment - Life expectancy - GNP per capita (PPP) |
| What is commonly used to determine the standard of living in a country? | PPP |
| Liberalism | emphasizes individual freedoms over collective equality and the power of markets over the state; liberals favor free markets and strong protections of private property (capitalism); the best state is a weak one; laissez-faire |
| Social Democracy | also emphasizes capitalism; argue that markets should be checked by the state and that the state should provide more public goods--health care, unemployment, retirement benefits, etc. State plays a larger role in the interactions bet. bus. & labor |
| Neocorporatism | relies on a limited # of associations that represent larger segment of business and labor, ex. labor unions; these characteristics show that social democracy places greater emphasis on collective equality than does liberalism |
| Social democrats seek greater equality by: | 1. Taxes - redistribution of wealth 2. Trade - promoted by balances preserving domestic industry & jobs |
| Over the past 25 years, the world has become more: | more liberal because funds from the IMF, World Bank, etc. is going towards making these countries more liberal (economy) |
| Globalization 3 | Is a process whereby extensive and intensive webs of relationships connect people across time and space; is the process of expanding and intensifying linkages bet. states, societies, & economies. Globalization makes domestic issues subject to intl. influe |
| What challenges sovereignty? | Globalization. - Economic globalization can transform markets and property within and between countries - Societal globalization may undermine old identities and create new ones |
| Globalization is associated with which 3 nonstate or suprastate entities | 1. MNCs 2. NGOs 3. intergovernmental organizations such as the UN |
| Argument for globalization | Intl. organizations will ne able to more effectively tackle critical global issues and politics will become more transparent and responsive; leads to greater prosperity, as firms can find new markets and cheaper workers and resources |
| Argument against globalization | Lead to fragmentation and a weakening of democratic institutions; hurts workers around the world because of pressure to find low-wage labor, and concentrates wealth in the hands of a small group of powerful corporations |
| Economic globalization characterized by | 1. Foreign Direct Investment 2. Expanded global communication, which makes it easier to sell goods and services nearly anywhere at nearly any time 3. Increased internal and international migration 4. Outsourcing |
| Outsourcing | the process by which a government moves its work to a secondary business in order to lower costs and/or increase production |
| Societal Globalization | is strongly affected by the rise of the internet, can connect people through common interests instead of through national or ethnic identities. Will engender global multiculturalism and international cosmopolitanism, leading to fewer tensions bet. people |
| Downsides of societal globalization | Will overwhelm people with information and choices, which will lead to alienation and a public backlash; lead to homogenization of culture |
| Globalization encourages new political institutions like the European Union, but many people are concerned about what they see as a corresponding loss of | state sovereignty |
| Critics of political globalization argue that __________ is the result of power moving to international organizations that are not under the control of citizens. | a democratic deficit |
| Which of the following organizations is NOT part of the Bretton Woods System, an international economic regime associated with the Washington Consensus? | The United States Development Programme |
| __________ link states together through rules and norms that shape their relationships to one another, usually regarding some specific issue. | International regimes |
| Which of the following is NOT a typical critique of economic globalization? | It leads to greater economic uncertainty as countries specialize their economies. |
| Some argue that globalization will lead to a global cosmopolitanism, meaning that: | political order will draw its identity and values from everywhere. |
| With regard to globalization and economics, which of the following is true? | Most economics is domestic; there is still a strong “home bias” in economic activity. |
| Less-developed and newly industrializing countries have been traditionally grouped together as the: | third world |
| Global South | The 50 least developed countries, mostly located in Africa. Identified by their very low levels of wealth, health, and literacy and by their economic vulnerability |
| True or False: Developing countries often employ the same economic strategies as the developed countries, but have limited success. | TRUE |
| Which of the following is an argument against having the state regulate trade? | keep the cost of goods low |
| Hot-house economies | Where large industries are reliant on the state for support and unable to compete in the international market- resulting in corruption and inefficiencies |
| Which of the following is NOT an obstacle to prosperity in many developing countries? | High birthrates (QUESTION) |
| Colonialism and Neocolonalism | Export of raw materials and intermediate goods |
| Industrialization | Classic strategy for increasing economic development via manufacturing; Transform commodities into intermediate goods, and then into more refined and valuable goods |
| Post-Industrialization | Production of services |
| Modern imperialism began when technological advancement allowed countries to project their military power far overseas. Which of the following countries possessed this capability but chose instead to retreat from overseas travel? | China |
| The best way to describe the impact imperialism had on gender identities was that | each region and each imperial power viewed gender somewhat differently. |
| Which of the following was NOT a consequence imperial economics? | a growth in local entrepreneurs |
| Why do many newly industrializing and less-developed countries face a significant challenge in creating cohesive national identities? | In these societies, the ethnic groups given economic advantage by the empire often continue to hold economic power after independence. |
| Which of the following is true regarding import substitution? | Patents and intellectual property rights were weakened to tap into foreign innovation. |
| With regard to development, what does the idea of “shared sovereignty” refer to? | an arrangement in which international organizations play a more direct role in building and maintaining political institutions |
| Many less-developed countries lack state capacity, a trend that can often be traced back to the early days of independence, because after independence... | most imperial bureaucrats left, leaving few experienced bureaucrats in these countries. |
| Critics of societal globalization and global cosmopolitanism focus on the fact that globalization can trigger nationalism and fundamentalism and that it | promotes consumerism and triggers cultural and intellectual decline. |
| A societal explanation for why conflicts occur would argue that conflict emerges | due to the number of ethnic groups in the society and their degree of integration or polarization. |
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abonvoul