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Physics
Final Exam
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Why is it important that new comets enter the planetary system on elliptical orbits rather than parabolic orbits? | It shows that they aren't just intruders from interstellar space. |
| What type of meteorite makes up the great majority of meteorite falls? | stones |
| What eventually happens to most short-period comets? | The ice in their nuclei completely evaporates. |
| Most meteorites are | asteroidal debris. |
| Most Apollo asteroids will be destroyed eventually by | collision with the Earth. |
| Why do meteors seem to come from the same point in the sky (the radiant) during a meteor shower? | They are following similar orbits through space. |
| Which of the following is good evidence that the asteroids are not the remains of a shattered planet? | Meteorites appear to have cooled off quickly. |
| Which of the following best describes the material that makes up the nucleus of a comet? | dirty ice |
| Most of the asteroids are located between the orbits of | Mars and Jupiter. |
| Which of the following would not be a result of the Earth being struck by an asteroid several km in diameter or larger? | the Earth would be moved farther from the Sun by the impact |
| When happens to the tail and coma of a comet after the comet passes close to the Sun? | They shrink. |
| The orbits of long period comets are | randomly oriented with respect to the ecliptic. |
| Approximately how large must a meteoroid be in order to survive passage through the atmosphere and reach the ground as a meteorite? | as big as a fist |
| How do we know that the "new" comets are members of the solar system and not just interstellar objects passing near the Sun? | They follow elliptical orbits. |
| A comet's nucleus is about ____ in diameter | a few kilometers |
| Comets in the Oort cloud are occasionally deflected into the inner solar system by | passing stars. |
| Why is the meteor shower seen in mid December called the Geminids? | The radiant of the shower is located in Gemini. |
| Which of the following is the reason that Comet Halley is observed to be much more spectacular at some appearances than at others? | Its observability near perihelion depends on the time of year. |
| What is distinctive about the Apollo asteroids? | Their orbits cross that of the Earth. |
| Where are the Trojan asteroids located? | in orbit about the Sun at Jupiter's distance |
| If the Earth were struck by an asteroid 10 km in diameter, which of the following would have the most serious consequences for life on Earth? | the dust cloud raised by the impact |
| The zodiacal light is caused by | sunlight reflected from interplanetary dust. |
| Why are most meteorite found as iron? | Irons are recognizable as meteorites long after they fall. |
| Which part of a comet is the only one that exists when the comet is far from the Sun? | the nucleus |
| What kind of bodies make up the Oort cloud? | icy bodies |
| Impact craters | appear to be a widespread solar system phenomenon. |
| Suppose a planet is orbited by a number of satellites. Which of the satellites will feel the weakest net tidal force due to the planet? | a small satellite in a distant orbit |
| What is remarkable about the surface of Ganymede? | It shows evidence of ancient tectonic activity. |
| What is particularly noteworthy about Titan? | It has a thick atmosphere. |
| Bright patches on the surfaces of Callisto are thought to be freshly exposed ice. How did the ice get exposed? | meteoroid impacts |
| How do we know that the surface of Io was formed very recently? | It has no impact craters. |
| In what respect are the atmospheres of Titan and Earth most different? | chemical composition |
| Except for Titan, the other satellites of Saturn seem to be made primarily of | ice. |
| What is the main reason why some of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter are denser than the others? | The denser ones contain more rocky material. |
| Why do astronomers strongly suspect that there is an ocean of liquid water beneath the icy surface of Europa? | The surface is broken into many pieces that resemble arctic ice fields. |
| The largest Gallilean satellite, Ganymede, is comparable to which planet in size? | Mercury |
| Which of the following does the surface of Mercury most closely resemble? | Callisto |
| Why are no impact craters seen on Io? | It has extensive volcanic activity. |
| Which of the following is the best description of Jupiter's outermost Galilean satellite, Callisto? | heavily cratered |
| Which of the following correctly describes the atmosphere of Saturn's satellite, Titan? | dense and cold |
| Which of the following is a possible cause of the division of the surface of Ganymede into two distinct types of terrain? | ancient plate tectonics |
| What is remarkable about Uranus's satellite, Miranda? | It has several distinct types of surface terrain. |
| Io's Volcanism | tidal heating of Io's interior by Jupiter. |
| What are the most notable surface features of Jupiter's satellite Io? | volcanoes |
| The moon Iapetus is unusual because: | It is very dark on its leading edge and very light on its trailing edge. |
| Which of the following is not a moon of Uranus? | Iapetus |
| The particles in Saturn's rings are known to be: | ice-covered particles that may be icy all the way through. |
| When the Moon is between 0 and 90 degrees East of the Sun in its orbit around the Earth, its phase is called: | waning crescent. |
| Which is NOT true about the angular size that the Sun and Moon appear to have with respect to one an other. | The Moon always looks larger than the Sun when the Moon appears very near the horizon. |
| The New Moon is NOT completely dark because of: | "Earthshine." |
| A spacecraft lands on a moon of one of the planets. The moon has a smooth surface resembling that of the lunar Mare. The rocks on the surface are found to be 4.0 billion years old. Why would such a finding be highly unusual? | If the surface is that old, it should be heavily cratered. |
| Which of the following is now thought to be the most likely way in which the Moon formed? | giant impact model |
| The diameter of the Moon is greater from front to back (seen from the Earth) than it is from pole to pole. What is responsible for the observed difference in diameters? | tides due to Earth |
| How can craters tell us about the ages of surface regions of planets? | Crater density increases with time. |
| A total lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon enters the Earth's | umbra. |
| Eclipses do not occur each month because | the Moon's orbital plane is inclined (tilted) to the ecliptic plane. |
| The analysis of samples returned from the Moon provided a means to estimate the ages of the surfaces of various planets and satellites because the samples made it possible to determine the relationship between age and | density of craters. |
| One hemisphere of a newly discovered satellite is much more heavily cratered than the other hemisphere. What can be said of the more heavily cratered side of the satellite? | It is older than the other side. |
| The dark, relatively smooth regions of the Moon's surface are the | maria. |
| What is the interval of time between eclipse seasons? | about 6 months |
| How have the ages of lunar rocks been determined? | by examination of the radioactive materials they contain |
| What kind of eclipse occurs where the Moon's penumbral shadow comes in contact with the surface of the Earth? | partial solar eclipse |
| The giant impact theory attributes the origin of the Moon to the impact of a Mars-size body with the Earth. Which of the following is both a true statement and supports the impact theory of the Moon's origin? | The composition of the Moon is similar to Earth's but somewhat different. |
| Astronomers think that the Moon formed: | about 4.5 billion years ago. |
| According to the giant impact (or big whack) model of the formation of the Moon, the collision between what two objects led to the formation of the Moon? | the Earth and a Mars-size body |
| Approximately how old are the oldest of the lunar samples returned to Earth by the Apollo astronauts? | 4.6 billion years |
| One of the most important results of the Apollo missions to the Moon was the determination | of the relationship between age and crater density. |
| The light colored highland regions of the Moon's surface are | terrae. |
| The surface of the Moon | is pocked by numerous craters. |
| What kind of eclipse will be seen by an observer located directly behind the umbral shadow of the Moon? | annular solar eclipse |
| If a lunar eclipse occurs tonight, when is the soonest that another lunar eclipse can occur? | in a month |
| Which of the following is a valid criticism of the fission theory of the origin of the Moon? | The Earth and Moon didn't have enough angular momentum for fission. |
| According to the fission theory of the origin of the Moon, what solar system body split to give birth to the Moon? | Earth |
| The lunar soil was produced by | meteoroid impacts. |
| Lunar maria are darker and less heavily cratered than lunar terrae. From this information, what can be concluded about the maria and terrae? | The maria are younger than the terrae and have a somewhat different composition. |
| The lunar maria were formed by | lava flows into low areas. |
| Compared to the lunar uplands (the terrae), the lunar maria are | smoother and younger. |
| If the Moon did not rotate on its own axis, we would observe | both sides of the Moon. |
| How does the impact theory of the origin of the Moon account for the differences between the chemical compositions of the Earth and the Moon? | When the Moon formed it was very hot. |
| What is the local sidereal time when the Vernal equinox is closest to your western horizon? | 6h00 |
| If your longitude is 90° W and the Vernal Equinox is just rising (crossing your celestial horizon) what is the Universal Sidereal Time? (i.e. What is the local sidereal time in Greenwich, England?) | 0h00 |
| Under the Gregorian Calendar the year 2000 was a Leap Year! | True. Years evenly divisible by 400 are leap years under the Gregorian Calendar |
| When travelling westbound from San Francisco to Tokyo, upon crossing the International Dateline (at a point that is also a timezone boundary), one changes her watch ahead by one hour and her calendar date back by one day. | False. |
| In principal, Standard Time means that only 24 different time zones are needed around the world, even if there are a few exceptions in practice (e.g. the few "half-hour" timezones...). | True. |
| August originally was a 30 day month, but a day was taken from February to make August 31 days long. | True. |
| To change from Daylight Savings Time to Standard Time, one changes her clock back by one hour. | True |
| Mean Solar Time implies that: | the time that the Sun crosses the Celestial Meridian is not exactly noon every day at any point on the Earth. |
| In the Horizon Coordinate System: | azimuth is measured in degrees clockwise (when looking downward) around the horizon starting at true north. |
| Which of the following objects could be observed to directly determine the length of a Solar Day? | The Sun. |
| The difference in length between sidereal and tropical years results primarily from: | the precession of the Earth's axis of Rotation about the axis of its revolution about the Sun due mostly to effects from the Moon's gravity. |
| In the most general terms, a day is defined as: | the time between successive transits of some celestial object across one's celestial meridian. |
| Along the ecliptic, the Right Ascension of the Winter Solstice is (Hint: the Sun appears to move eastward in the sky along the ecliptic through the year): | 18h00. |
| The Declination of the Winter Solstice along the ecliptic is: | 23.5 degrees South |
| The sense of the Earth's rotation is: | All of the above are correct. |
| As a result of the Earth's revolution, the sun appears to move Eastward among the stars along: | the ecliptic. |
| Mean Solar Time: | is employed by all Standard Time systems. |
| Find the FALSE statement: | If your zenith is on the Celestial Equator, then your nadir is a Celestial Pole. |
| The nadir is always opposite the zenith. | True. |
| The Celestial Equator is midway between the Celestial Poles on the Celestial Sphere. | True. |
| The declination of the zenith depends on the observer latitude. | True. |
| The right ascension of the vernal equinox is always zero. | True. |
| Apparent Solar time varies: | All of the above contribute. |
| The vernal equinox will transit an observer's celestial meridian when: | the observer's Local Sidereal Time is 0h00. |
| If it is approaching midnight on December 24th, from which direction must you approach the International Dateline, assuming that you will cross it exactly as it turns midnight in that time zone, and that the time zone spans to avoid missing Christmas? | You must travel from west to east (Tokyo to San Fransico) to avoid missing Christmas altogether under those conditions. |
| Following are right ascensions and declinations for some stars. Which one is not likely to be in a Zodiacal constellation? (i.e. Which star does not lie along the ecliptic?) | RA = 6h00, d = -23 1/2º. This point is actually 47º south of the Winter Solstice. |
| If the Local Sidereal Time is 10h00 when the Universal Sidereal Time is 16h20 and a star with a declination of 59.5ºN is crossing your Celestial Meridian 30º North of your Zenith, you are located approximately in: | Houston, Texas. |
| The first great Greek philosopher and the person who introduced the concept of objective reality in western thought was: | Thales |
| The first recorded suggestion that the sky's motion was due to a rotation of the Earth is generally credited to: | Ecphantus & Hicetas |
| Is generally credited with the distinguishing and founding of the modern fields of philosophy and mathematics: | Pythagoras |
| The best empirical scientist of his day and the author of a mathematical model of the motions of the planets based on the rotation of concentric spheres with respect to one and other: | Eudoxus |
| Anaximander: | Was the first known person to advocate an infinite universe. |
| Eratosthenes: | was the first person to measure the earth's diameter |
| Aristotle: | formally organized the classification of the sciences |
| The planet that is now, at this moment, farthest from the sun is: | Neptune |
| As seen by a terrestrial observer, which of the following could never appear directly overhead at midnight? | Venus |
| Hipparchus: | discovered and measured the precession of the earth's axis of rotation |
| Astrology is: | an attempt to predict or explain actions and personalities on the basis of the position of the stars and planets |
| Ptolomy: | passed down the primary Astrological ideas in use up to this day. |
| Aristarchus | Is credited with being the first person to seriously advocate a heliocentric theory of the Solar System |
| The Pythagoreans were known to: | all of the other answers to this question are correct |
| Hipparchus: | Made an absolute measurement of the distances to the Sun and Moon. |
| Natal Astrology: | uses the stars to predict a person's personality traits based upon the positions of the stars at the moment of birth |
| If the mass of the galaxy is 10 to the 44th grams and that of a typical star is 10 to the 32nd grams, the number of stars in the galaxy is approximately | 10 to the 12th power |
| If the sun is about 100 million miles from Earth and light travels at about 186,000 miles per second, the time required for light to travel from sun to earth is about | Around 8 1/2 minutes |
| About how much faster (ratio) is the speed of light than the speed of sound in air (use 300 m/s for sound and 300,000 Km/s for light and the answer is the ratio or factor between them) | one million |
| When Aristotle used the failure to observe any stellar parallax argument to support the view that the earth did not move around the sun, his mistake was: | he neglected the possibility that the Earth-Sun distance might be so much smaller than the distance to the stars than the human eye could not see the parallax. |
| Suns interior | Core, Radiative zone, Convective zone |
| Core | Source of energy |
| Radiative zone | Energy transported by radiation |
| Convective Zone | Energy transported by convection |
| Suns atmosphere | photosphere, chromosphere, corona |
| Hydrostatic Equilibrium | Outward flow of energy creates an outward pressure trying to expand the sun while gravity creates inward pull. This balance determines the size of the sun. |
| Hydrostatic Equilibrium | IF the energy flow were to increase the sun would grow, and if it decreased it would shrink. |
| Photosphere | 99% of light emitted, sunspots, granulations |
| Chromosphere | |
| Corona | Prominences |
| Energy flow | The rate energy is produced in the sun is exactly the same as the suns luminosity at the surface |
| The sun is a _____ all the way down to its center | gas |
| Core | The core is the dense center of the sun and the place where the nuclear fusion energy liberating processes occur. |
| Core | Energy is transported outward by radiation |
| central temperature | 15.6 million degrees K |
| Central Density | approx. 160, over 7 times the density of platinum |
| The density is very | center weighted, lower for the outerhalf |
| Radiative zone | Vast bulk of the sun's volume is in this zone |
| It takes hundreds of thousands of years for the suns energy to migrate through | the radiative zone |
| The outward flow of radiation | creates a radiation pressure that holds the sun up against gravity |
| Convective zone | neat the surface, the pressure drops enough that the gas can expand as the heat from below migrates upward. |
| The surface of the sun | is the point in the gas above which light can increasingly get out directly |
| The suns atmosphere is | the layers of gas above the surface |
| Granulation | due to the bright centers of the bubbles caused by the hot rising gas and surrounded by darker regions where the cooler denser gas is sheeting back down into the convective zone. |
| Suns atmosphere | Photosphere, Chromosphere, Transition Zone, Corona |
| Photosphere: | 99% of the light originates here, Temperature decreases with height above surface Base is ~6000k Top is ~4500 K Absorption Spectrum |
| Chromosphere (~1000 km thick) | Temperature increases with height above photosphere, Base is 4500, Top is ~10,000 K, Emission Spectrum |
| Transition Zone (~10,000 km) | Temperature soars to >1M K |
| Corona | Temperature > 1 M K |
| Photosphere | Gives rise to 99% of light we see |
| The Absorption Spectrum | In the photosphere, discovered by Fraunhofer |
| The absorption spectrum temperature is | from 6000 K at the base to 4500 K at the top |
| The Chromosphere | starts at the coolest point in the Sun's atmosphere and extends upwards until the temperature starts to climb rapidly into what is termed the Transition Zone. |
| Rapid climb in temperature due to | magnetic heating. |
| Spicules | narrow towering jets of hot gas shoot upwards from the photosphere into chromosphere also possibly due to magnetic fields in the region of the boundaries of the super-granules |
| The Corona | Can be seen during an eclipse of sun |
| The Corona is | Very hot giving rise to a continuous spectrum from the electrions freed by the high temperatures |
| The sun has a | very strong dipole magnetic field generated by its rapidly rotating fluid electrically conducting internal structure |
| The suns interior | is ionized, and thus a charged plasma, which drafs the magnetic field lines with it, and and the differential rotation winds up the field lines knuckle |
| Sunspots | are where the field lines protrude from the suns surface |
| Center of a sunspot | Umbra |
| Surrounding region | Penumbra |
| The winding up of suns magnetic field causes it to | "somersault" every 11 years |
| The period for a full cycle of rotation | 22 years |
| Sunspots appear ____ from the equator earlier in the cycle and ____ later in the cycle. | Farther, closer |
| All solar disturbances are caused by ____ and follow the ____ | Magnetic field effects, Solar Cycle |
| Prominences | are loops of magnetic field lines that allow chromospheric material to be arched up into the corona --- the material generally falls back to the sun |
| Flares | Caused by twisted field lines and cause X-ray burts and some particle emission |
| Coronal Mass Ejections | Explosive ejections of material on giant expanding magentic loops - they cause solar particle events which can be hazardous to astronauts |
| Solar Particle Events | Solar "Storms" that can create significant radiation hazard for astronauts |
| Coronal Holes, appear dark on x-ray | caused by solar wind, chared particles that stream far away from the sun on magnetic field lines. |
| Solar wind streams outward at | 100 km/s |
| The suns Poles | The south pole is cooler than the north pole independent of the Solar Cycle |
| Universe contains fundamental entities that we call particles that fall into two broad families known as | Fermions and Bosons |
| Fermions | are the "bricks" of which matter is composed |
| Bosons | The "mortar" that holds the fermions together |
| Fermions grouped into two "families" | Lepton and Quarks (3 generations of 2 particle types each) |
| Bosons grouped into 4 Fundamental forces | The strong force (holds nuclei together), The Electromagnetic force (Holds atoms together - couples to "Charge") The Weak force (Holds "generations" together - couples to Fermions) Gravity (Holds the universe together - couples to energy) |
| All particles contain | Energy |
| Rest-Mass is a form of | Energy |
| Mass-less particles must move at the speed of | Light |
| All particle shave either Integral or half-integral ____ in multiples of Plancks constand (h) divided by 2pie | spin |
| Even ________ can have spin | Point Particles |
| All Fermions have ________ spin magnitudes | Half-Integral (1/2 h-bar, 3/2 h-bar, 5/2 h-bar) |
| All Bosons have "Whole-Integral" Spin Magnitudes | 0, h-bar, 2h-bar, 3 h-bar |
| Anti-Particles & Anti-Matter | Every particle type has a corresponding Anti-Particle type (Anti-Particles are "mirror images" of the corresponding particle). |
| Anti-particles have the same | Rest mass (anti-particles do not have "Anti-Mass"), Magnitude of Electric charge, Magnitude of spin(intrinsic angular momentum), Lifetime (mean decay time if not "stable") |
| Anti-particles have the opposite | Sign of electric charge, Direction of spin |
| Energy is | "Conserved" |
| _____ is one of the attributes that can be possessed by particles | energy |
| Energy is absolutely conserved in any ______ | closed system |
| Conserved means that the total amount is ______ | constant in time |
| The universe as a whole is _____ | closed in that sense |
| It also holds in any local system where no energy is transferred to or from anything not in that system ( just read question part for info) | |
| The Uncertainty Principle | Nature requires time to measure the amount of energy present in any local system and she can only require conservation of what she can measure |
| The uncertainty principle | The uncertainty in the amount of energy present in any local system times the length of time she has had to determine it is on the order of Planck's Constant |
| The uncertainty principle | Change in energy (times) change in Time ~ h |
| The four fundamental Forces | The only way that one particle can be affected by another particle is through one of the 4 fundamental forces |
| Each force _____ to some particular attribute of the particle. If a particle does not have that attribute, ___________________ | Couples, It cannot feel that force. |
| Each force can be represented as an ______ of one or more specific ______. | exchange, boson. |
| Bosons do not obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle | There is no limit to the number of bosons that can be in the same state at the same time (i.e in the same place at the same time) |
| Bosons have integral spin | o,2 h/2pie or 2 h-bar, 3 h/2pie or 3 h-bar |
| Bosons are generally not ______ by ____. There are no arbitrary restrictions on the number of particle v. anti-particles of a particular kind of BOSON that must be present before and after any interaction | conserved, type. |
| The 4 fundamental forces | Strong force Electromagnetic force Weak force Gravity |
| Strong force relative strength = | 1 |
| Electromagnetic force relative strength = | 1/137 or approz. 10^-2 |
| Weak force relative strength | approx. 10^-13 |
| Gravity relative strength | 10^-40 |
| The strong force are ______ forces | Nuclear |
| The mediating BOSON in the Strong Force is called a _______ | GLUON |
| GLUONS - Couple to an attribute that we call _____ | COLOR |
| Gluons themselves possess ______ | COLOR |
| Gluons can influence each other through the _____ itself | strong force |
| _ possible COLOR types of GLUONS | 8 |
| Gluons are presumably ____ | massless |
| The COLOR Force as mediated by GLUON exchange _____ in strength with Distance | increases |
| We call it COLOR by analogy to the additive primary colors (red green and blue) because it takes one of each to be ________ | "Color neutral" |
| Color is a _________ (su3) Force | 3-fold symmetry |
| there are 8 colors | not just 3 |
| The 8 colors | Red, Green, Blue, Anti-Red, Anti-Green, Anti Blue, Neutral(Red + Green + Blue)(also Anti + color). there are also 2 mixed color states. |
| Color is _____ Macroscopically Observable | not |
| All Macroscopically observable particles must be color ______(because of the force increasing with distance) | neutral |
| The boson exchanged between particles in the electromagnetic interaction is the ______. | Photon (Electromagnetic Force) |
| Photons (Light)- Couple to ______ | Electric Charge |
| Photons are Massless but with spin ____ | 1 |
| The Electromagnetic force has a 2-fold symettry | 2 types of charge that combine to make an object electromagnetically neutral |
| Benjamin Franklin names the 2 types | + and - |
| The Electromagnetic FOrce is a __ Force | 1/r^2 |
| The Weak Force | Carried by Heavy Vector Bosons (Massive Photons) |
| They Couple to all _________ | Left Handed Fermions |
| They couple to | W, W's anti-particle, and the z |
| Very massive (mw-80.4 GeV and mz ~ 91.2 GeV) with spin of | 1 |
| The only Fermion ________ interaction | "flavor changing" |
| The ONLY interaction that can be different for _____ and their _______. | Particles, anti-particles |
| _______ have been postulated to be the BOSON Force Carries of Gravity | Gravitons |
| Gravitons couple to _____. Gravitons though have not been seen so far. | Energy |
| Gravitons are ______ and thus a ____ Force with spin ___ | massless, 1/R^2, 2 |
| _______________ provides an alternate explanation for gravity which is it does not require particle exchange to manifest a force. Rather, ___________ explains Gravity as a geometric modification of space-time due to the presence of Energy. | General Relativity X 2 |
| How can a force be described as an exchange of particles? | When a particle emits another particle, it recoils due to the conservation of momentum. the Emission of a particle or its capture causes a change in the momentum of the emitting or capturing particle and that is the same as a force on the particle. |
| How can the emitting particle "create" another particle | Through the uncertainty principle particles can "Cheat" if they do it quickly enough. So all forces are the result of this kind of "cheating" mother nature |
| The __________ is determined by this ability to cheat. | range of forces |
| Massless Force carriers (Bosons) give rise to a ____ Force. | 1/r^2 |
| Massiev force carriers (bosons) give rise to ____ force | e^(-R/Ÿ) |
| Fermions: | Quarks, Leptons |
| Quarks: | 3 generations with 2 flavors in each Generation All Quarks possess color and Electric Charge |
| Leptons(1/2 spin): | 3 Generations with 2 flavors in each generation No leptons possess Color (So they cannot "feel" the strong force) |
| Neutrinos apparently do not have mass and also have observable states that are mixtures of 3 different ______ which we call _, _, and _ | fundamental states, v1, v2, v3 |
| Leptons Flavors: | Ve, e, Vu, u, Vt, t |
| Ve | Electrons and neutrinos, mass 1x10^-8 GeV/c2. Electric Charge = 0. |
| e | Electron, mass 0.000511, Charge = -1. |
| Vu | Muon and Neutrino, mass <0.0002, Charge = 0. |
| u | Muon, mass 1.06, Charge -1. |
| Vt | Tau and Neutrino, Mass <0.02, Charge = 0. |
| t | Tau, Mass 1.7771, Charge = -1. |
| Quarks Flavors(1/2 spin) : | u, d, c, s, t, b |
| U | Up, Mass 0.003 GeV/c2, electric charge = 2/3. |
| d | Down, Mass 0.006, Charge = -1/3 |
| c | Charm, Mass 1.3 GeV/c2, Electric Charge = -1/3 |
| s | Strange, Mass 0.1 GeV/c2, Charge = -1/3. |
| t | Top, Mass 175 GeV/c2, Charge = 2/3. |
| b | Bottom, Mass 4,3 GeV/c2, Charge = -1/3. |
| Hadrons | the Macroscopically "Observable" strongly interacting particles. |
| Baryons | Quark triplets held together by Gluons |
| Proton | uud (up, up, down) |
| Neutron | (up, down, down) |
| Lambda | (up, down, strange) |
| Mesons | Quark-Anti-Quark pairs held together by Gluons |
| Macroscopic Bosons | The Macroscopic Nuclear Force Carriers |
| (Pie)(Up anti-down) and the p is an _______ of the same combination of quarks | "excited" state |
| (anti-Pie)(down anti-up) and the anti-p is an _____ | "excited" state |
| (Pie0)(up anti-up, + down anti-down) | Pro |
| Conserved in all interactions | Energy, Momentum, Angular momentum, Electric Charge, Number of Fermions- Number of Leptons, Number of Baryons (net number of QUARKS) |
| The following quantities are conserved except for weak interactions | Lepton and Quark generation |
| If an interaction obeys all of the laws it _____, and if it would violate one, it cannot _____. | Occurs, occur. |
| The universe that we see is made up of two types of Fermions: ______________ | Quarks and Leptons |
| Both Quarks and leptons each have | the same structure of 3 generations of 2 flavors each |
| There are only ___ possible ways in which particles may interact with one another | four |
| Interactions can be described as the | exchange of another type of particle called BOSONS, and each interaction has its own unique Boson (or Bosons). |
| Protons and neutrons are composite particles amde internally of ______ and _______ | Quarks and Gluons |
| However at the level of Nuclear physics we can usually deal with the protons and neutrons as if they were "elementary" particles themselves. (collectively we refer to them as ________) | "Nucleons" |
| Likewise, we can view the strong force between nucleons as being due to the exchange of | Mesons |
| The strong force between nucleons is approximately the same between all nucleons (p & n alike), and it is attractive at _____ ranges with a ____ range repulsive core. | Longer, short |
| The number of protons in a nucleus is called the | "Atomic Number" |
| The atomic number determines the type of _____ because the charge on the nucleus comes only from the protons, and that determines the force on any orbiting _______ in the atom | "element", electrons |
| It is the _____ structure orbiting the nucleus that gives rise to the _______ of the elements. | Electron, chemical properties |
| Because protons are ___________ charged, they ____ each other electrically, and the electric force, although weaker than the _____, is longer ranged. | positively, repel, strong force |
| In order to add more attractive force to hold _____ together, _____ are needed as more protons are added. | nuclei, neutrons |
| _________ add to the attractive strong force but do not have any charge themselves, so they do not increase electric repulsion. | neutrons |
| Nuclei with a specific number of neutrons are called ________. | Isotopes |
| We use the chemical symbol to indicate isotopes: 14c, 12c, 2H, where the preceding raised number indicated the total number of nucleons in the isotope. | c has 6 protons, so c12 has 6 neutrons and c14 has 8 neutrons. h2 has one of each. |
| Binding Energy | Generally, in order to stick things together using the forces between them so that they are "bound:, one must remove energy from that system. |
| To see this consider that when you want to break apart things that are bound by forces between them, you have to put energy __. | In |
| Because energy is absolutely conserved, if you have to put _____ into an already bound system to break it apart, you must have taken the same amount of _____ out when you bound them together in the first place. | energy, energy |
| This is true for | Scotch tape, Elmers glue and Nuclear fusion |
| The hydrogen in the Sun is mostly all just H1 (i.e. all ______), with no _______. | protons, neutrons |
| To liberate energy by making heavier nuclei which are bound together, one needs _____. | neutrons |
| Neutrons are ______ and ______ number is conserved in any interaction. | baryons, baryon |
| So, the only solution is to find a way to make ____ out of protons. | neutrons |
| The problem is that _____ have slightly more mass than ____, so you need to ___ energy to a proton to make it a neutron. | neutrons, protons, add |
| You also have to do something with the protons charge as well because neutrons are electrically _____. | Neutral |
| If we can bring 2 protons together in a collision with enough energy to cover the different in proton and neutron masses we can do the following: | p + p = p + n + e + Ve |
| p+p=p+n+e+Ve | Obeys all of the conservation laws: Baryon number is conserved, Lepton number is conserved, Electric charge is conserved, enough kinetic energy is present to cover the different in mass between protons and neutrons. |
| p+p=p+n+e+Ve continued | Furthermore there is enough energy to make the electron and an anti-electron neutrino. |
| It must be a _______ as well because essentially a d-quark is changed into a u-quark. | Weak interaction |
| Because the p-p reaction changed a d-quark into a u-quark, which is a "flavor changing" reaction, it must be a _______ | weak interaction |
| This implies the necessity to exchange a W particle, and in turn due to the Uncertainty Principle it will be ____________ | very short ranged. |
| The two protons must be ________ (dense) as well as bringing in enough energy (hot) which means moving ________. | very close together, very fast. |
| These conditions exist only in the ______ | Sun's central core. |
| The p-p reaction itself actually ______ energy because the neutron is slightly more massive than the _____. | Consumes, Proton |
| One you have neutrons you can start to build heavier nuclei, which have "Binding Energies" that can be liberated as the nuclei are put together, and even making H2 (1 proton and neutron) which gives a | net gain |
| Helium (4He) is a relatively _____ bound nucleus and is composed of ____________. | Tightly, 2 protons and 2 neutrons |
| Its' total mass is ____ than the masses of 2 p's + 2 n's, with the difference being the _____ that was liberated when the nucleus was formed. | less, binding energy. |
| Input:___ Output:___ | 6 Protons - 2 Protons, 2 electrons, 2 anti electrons and 1 4He (2p's +2 n's). |
| a net total energy ______ of 26.7 MeV or ~0.7% of the 4 p's that made it into the final 4He nucleus | Liberated |
| A little of the energy comes out of the ___ in the form of the energy possessed by the 2 anti - Ve's | sun |
| ve's and anti-ve's are not charged and do not feel the _____. They only interact via the _______. | Strong force, weak force. |
| This means they can pass right through the ____ and the Earth with only a _______. | sun, very small chance of interacting. |
| There have been several experiments that have seen them, but there are only ____ as many as expected | ~1/3 |
| This is thought to be due to _____ of the anti- Ve's into the other 2 possible neutrino types | oscillation |
| New experiments are being done to confirm this ______ | oscillation |
| The first solar neutrino experiment was done in a gold mine in ______ by ______. | Lead - south Dakota, Ray Davis |
| The first solar neutrino experiment consisted of a large tank of ________ (which contains a significant amount of ____) | Dry cleaning fluid, 37Cl |
| When an anti-Ve interacts with a _____ in the 37Cl nucleus it can turn it into a proton plus an e+. | neutron |
| Changing a neutron into a proton changed the element from 37Cl into ___, which is a noble gas, and easily flushed out of the tank. | Ar37 |
| 37Ar happened to be _______ and its decay can be detected | radioactive |
| The son has consumed ______ of the hydrogen in its core over the last _____. We call such a star a ________ star. | ~half, 4.5 billion years, main sequence. |
| The sun has another _____ left as a ______ star . During that time the Sun will grow _______ and gradually ______. | ~4.5 billion years, main sequence star, brighter, larger. |
| After ~4.5 billion years the convective zone will reach down to the core bringing fresh ______ with it. That will dramatically ______ the luminosity of the core, which will cause the sun to __________ into the ________ phase. | Hydrogen, increase, expand enormously, "Red Giant" |
| The process of increasing core luminosity will cause a series of expulsions of __________. | Exterior envelope shells. |
| After another ______ the core fired will go out due to the lack of H, & the Sun will become a _________, slightly larger than the Earth. | ~1 billion years, white dwarf |
| The solar system formed ______ years ago out of a giant interstellar cloud of ___% H and ___% He with __% of the rest of the elements. | ~4.5 billion years, ~90% H, ~10% HE, ~1% |
| The _______ collapse rapidly formed a thin rotating disk, in which collisions of individual particles allowed a migration of mass _____. | gravitational, inward |
| The formation of a proto-star was facilitated by the formation of ______ in order to allow the _____________ to be funneled away from the central star in the proto disk. | Jupiter, angular momentum |
| _______ is a stellar system that is in the process of formation, similar to the way we believed the Solar System formed over 4.5 billion years ago. | Beta Pictoris |
| The proto-star is in the center of an already very _____ disk. | collapsed |
| The innermost part of the proto-disk was _____ by the _____ and all icy materials were vaporized and pushed ______. | heated, proto-star, outward. |
| Rocky materials in the form of dust remained more or less _______ within the disk | evenly distributed |
| The absence of ______ in the inner region lead to the formation of _______ from a bottom up ______ process, most likely accompanied by many intermediate massive collisions as the ______ process proceeded. | icy materials,terrestrial planets, accretion |
| Jupiter and Saturn both formed as ________. They accreted out of the primordial solar cloud materials just like the sun, but were not _____ enough to have their cores reach the conditions necessary for ____________ | mini solar systems of their own, massive, nuclear fusion |
| The _________ of Jupiter and Saturn were enough to make the mini-solar system with their ____ playing the roles of ______. | gravitational heat, moons, planets |
| The ___________ blown _______ by the proto-star condensed in the outer regions of the Solar System and accreted into the Ice Giants, _____ and _____. It also formed the _______ objects and the ________. | icy materials, outward, Uranus, Neptune, Kuiper Belt, Oort cloud |
| The asteroids were formed from leftover rocky material that was prevented from ______ further by ______ gravity. | accreting, Jupiter's |
| Things due to _______ are uncertainties: the formation of the ____ system The large ___ core of Mercury The retrograde rotation of ____ The ____ rotation of Uranus | Giant Impacts, Iron, Venus, Retrograde |
| The source of material for the formation of the ______ is an uncertainty | Ice Giants, Uranus and Neptune |
| Whether life exists on ____ or ____ (or elsewhere) | Europa, Titan |
| Why does ______ have a nitrogen atmosphere | Titan |
| The _____ "Cliff"--Why does the _____ appear to end abruptly at ~50 AU? | Kuiper, Kuiper belt |
| The ______ between the Sun's poles | temperature difference |
| The Voyager position _______ | anomalies |
| Moons of Jupiter: | Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto |
| Io | Volcanic Moon closest galilean moon to Jupiter |
| Europa | Silicate rock, iron core second closest Galilean moon to Jupiter, believed to have oceans beneath the surface, best chance of life. Smooth surface tenuous atmosphere of oxygen |
| Ganymede | Largest moon in the solar system, 3rd Galilean moon |
| Callisto | Heavy Cratered, like Mercury, furthest Galilean moon |
| Moons of Saturn | Titan, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus, and Mimas |
| Titan | Second largest moon in galaxy, Dense Nitrogen atmosphere, Moon of SATURN |
| Rhea | Moon of Saturn |
| Iapetus | Moon of Saturn, strange equatorial ridge discovered by Cassini mission that runs about halfway around the moon. |
| Dione | Moon of Saturn |
| Tethys | Moon of Saturn, second brightest among Saturn's moons after Enceladus, and neutral in color. |
| Enceladus | the sixth-largest of the moons of Saturn reflects almost all of the light that strikes it, very high albedo, has active eruptions |
| Moons of Neptune | Triton, Proteus, and Nereid |
| Triton | Nitrogen geysers, largest moon of Neptune, thought to be captured from Kuiper Belt, relatively young surface |
| Proteus | is the second largest Neptunian moon, and Neptune's largest inner satellite. Discovered by Voyager 2 spacecraft in 1989. |
| Nereid | Nereid, also known as Neptune II, is the third-largest moon of Neptune. It has a highly eccentric orbit. Nereid was discovered by Gerard Kuiper in 1949 and was the second moon of Neptune to be discovered. |
| Moons of Uranus | Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon |
| Miranda | Miranda shows more evidence of past geologic activity than any of the other Uranian satellites. Mostly water Ice, evidence of tectonic/geological activity. |
| Ariel | Ariel is the fourth-largest of the 27 known moons of Uranus. Ariel orbits and rotates in the equatorial plane of Uranus, which is almost perpendicular to the orbit of Uranus, and so has an extreme seasonal cycle. |
| Umbriel | Umbriel is a moon of Uranus, Covered by numerous impact craters reaching 210 km (130 mi) in diameter, Umbriel is the second most heavily cratered satellite of Uranus after Oberon. Ring of bright material on the floor of Wunda Crater. |
| Titania | Titania is the largest of the moons of Uranus and the eighth largest moon in the Solar System Titania consists of approximately equal amounts of ice and rock, has been studied up close only once, by the spacecraft Voyager 2 in January 1986. |
| Oberon | Oberon, also designated Uranus IV, is the outermost major moon of the planet Uranus. It is the second largest and second most massive of the Uranian moons, and the ninth most massive moon in the Solar System. Most heavily cratered moon of Uranus. |
| Moons of Mars | Phobos, Deimos |
| Mimas | Moon of Saturn |
| The first successful orbital launch was of the Soviet unmanned _______ ("Satellite 1") mission on 4 October 1957. | Sputnik 1 |
| On 31 January 1958, the U.S. successfully orbited _______ on a Juno rocket. | Explorer 1 |
| The first successful human spaceflight was ______ ("East 1"), carrying 27 year old Russian cosmonaut ______ on 12 April 1961. | Vostok 1, Yuri Gagarin |
| The U.S. first launched a person into space within a month of Vostok 1 with ______ suborbital flight in _______. | Alan Shepard's, Mercury-Redstone 3 |
| The first manned landing on another celestial body was performed by _______ in its lunar landing on 20 July 1969. | Apollo 11 |
| The first successful interplanetary flyby was the 1962 ________ flyby of Venus | Mariner 2 |
| Flybys for the other planets were first achieved in 1965 for Mars by ______ | Mariner 4 |
| 1973 expedition for Jupiter by ________ | Pioneer 10 |
| 1974 expedition for Mercury by ________ | Mariner 10 |
| 1979 expedition for Saturn by ______ | Pioneer 11 |
| 1986 expedition for Uranus by ______ | Voyager 2 |
| 1989 for Neptune by _______ (same as uranus expedition. | Voyager 2 |
| The first interplanetary surface mission to return at least limited surface data from another planet was the 1970 landing of ______ on Venus which returned data to earth for 23 minutes. | Venera 7 |
| In 1971 the _____ mission achieved the first soft landing on Mars returning data for almost 20 seconds. | Mars 3 |
| Later much longer duration surface missions were achieved, including over 6 years of Mars surface operation by _____ from 1975 to 1982 | Viking 1 |
| 2 hours of transmission from the surface of Venus by ______ in 1982, the longest ever Soviet planetary surface mission. | Venera 13 |
| Voyager 1 | Gravity assists would enable a single probe to visit the four gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) while requiring a minimal amount of propellant and a shorter transit duration between planets. |
| Voyager 2 | It was determined that utilizing gravity assists would enable a single probe to visit the four gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) while requiring a minimal amount of propellant and a shorter transit duration between planets. |
| Pioneer 10 | completed the first mission to the planet Jupiter |
| Viking | Mission to mars: possible life on mars, Obtain high-resolution images of the Martian surface Characterize the structure and composition of the atmosphere and surface Search for evidence of life on Mars |
| mariner 9 | a NASA space orbiter that helped in the exploration of Mars and was part of the Mariner program. Mariner 9 was launched toward Mars on May 30, 1971 |
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