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6-Design and Causati
Research Design & Causation
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Identifying causes | Figuring out why things happen;Is the goal of most social science research |
| Unit of Analysis | for Nonexperimental research designs, mislead the existence of an association between 2 variables; individuals, groups, towns, nations; The level of social life - research ? is focused |
| In most sociological and psychological studies, the unit of analysis are ________________. | Individuals |
| The researcher may collect survey data from individuals, _______ the ____. | Analyze the data |
| In some studies, groups are the unit of analysis, but data are collected from | Individuals; are combined to be described as a group |
| Units of Observation | Distinguish the concept of units of analysis; The cases about which measures actually are obtained in a sample; individuals analyzed at group levels |
| Ecological Fallacy | A researcher should make sure that their causal conclusions reflect the units of analysis in their study;An error in reasoning in which incorrect conclusions about individual level processes are drawn from group-level data |
| Reductionist Fallacy | An error in reasoning that occurs when incorrect conclusions about group-level processes are based on individual-level data;Also known as individualist fallacy; data about individuals are used to make inferences about group level processes |
| Cross-Sectional Research Design | A study in which data are collected at only one point in time |
| Time Order | A criterion for establishing a causal relation between two variables; The variation in the presumed cause (the independent variable) must occur before the variation in the presumed effect (the dependent variable); what happened 1st; for causal analysis |
| Longitudinal Research Design | A study in which data are collected that can be ordered in time; also defined as research in which data are collected at 2/2+ points in time; time order straight forward |
| Cross-Sectional - The ____________ variable is _____ at some point to the variation in the dependent variable. | Independent, Fixed |
| Demographic variables that are determined at birth - such as? | Sex, race, and Age - are fixed in this way |
| We believe that respondents can give us reliable ________ of what happened to them or what they thought at some point in time. | Reports |
| We know that the value of the dependent variable was similar for ___ _____ prior to the treatment | All cases |
| Repeated Cross-Sectional Design | Also known as trend studies; A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected at two or more points in time from different samples of the same population |
| Fixed-Sample Panel Design | ident. changes in individuals, or groups;A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected from the same individuals - the panel - at 2 or more points in time. In another type of panel design, panel members who leave are replaced with new members |
| Because a panel design follows the same ___________, it is better than a repeated cross-sectional design for testing ____________. | Individuals, Hypothesis |
| What are the two reasons why Panel designs don't work due to 2 major difficulties? | Expensive, difficult to track people, those who are lost do not remain in the panel, subject fatigue |
| What does a A high rate of subject attrition mean? | The follow-up sample will no longer be representative of the population from which it was drawn and may longer provide a sound basis for estimating change. |
| Event-Based Designs | Often called Cohort study; Who all have the same experienced a similar event or a common starting point; A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected at 2 or more points in time from individuals in a cohort |
| Event based design can be a type of repeated ___What?____ | Cross-sectional design or a type of panel design |
| What happens during an event based repeated cross sectional design? | separates samples are drawn from the same cohort at two or more different times |
| What happens during an event based panel design? | The same individuals from the same cohort are studied at 2 or more different times |
| What is a Cause? | It is an explanation for some characteristic, attitude, or behavior of groups, individuals, or other entities (such as families, organizations, or cities) or for events |
| Nomothetic | The independent variable is the presumed cause, and the dependent variable is the potential effect |
| Idiographic | Used in Qualitative research and everyday conversations about causes;Individual events or the behaviors of individuals are explained with a series of related, prior events |
| Nomothetic Causal Explanation | One involving the belief that variation in an independent variable will be followed by variation in the dependent variable, when all other things are equal; An explanation that identifies common influences on a number of cases or events |
| Ceteris Paribus | Latin phrase meaning "other things being equal." |
| Causal effect (Nomothetic Perspective) | The value of cases on the dependent variable differs from what their value would have been in the absence of variation in the independent variable |
| Causal effect (Nomothetic Perspective) | When variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable |
| Counterfactual | The outcome that would have occurred if the subjects who were exposed to the treatment actually were not exposed, but otherwise had had identical experiences to those they underwent during the experiment |
| What can you do to design a research to create conditions that are comparable? | impact on the dependent variable of variation in the independent variable alone, even though we will not be able to compare the same people at the same time in exactly the same circumstances, except for the variation in the independent variable |
| Quantitative research seek to test Nomothetic causal explanations with either ____________ or _________________ research designs. | Experimental, Nonexperimental |
| Idiographic Causal Explanation | The concrete, individual sequence of events, thoughts, or actions that resulted in a particular outcome for a particular individual or that led to a particular event;may also be termed an individualist or a historicist explanation |
| Causal effect | Also called Idiographic perspective;When a series of concrete events, thoughts, or actions result in a particular event or individual outcome |
| Causal effect | Also called Idiographic perspective; Includes statements of initial conditions and then relates a series of events at different times that led to the outcome, or causal effect |
| Idiographic explanations focus on what? | Particular social actors, in particular social places, at particular social times |
| Idiographic explanations are concerned with context __________________________________. | With understanding the particular outcome as part of a larger set of interrelated circumstances |
| Idiographic explanation can be termed as ____________. | Holistic |
| Explain why Idiographic explanation is deterministic? | Focuses on what caused a particular event to occur or what caused a particular case to change |
| What are the 3 main bases for identifying a nomothetic causal effect? | Empirical association, Appropriate time order, and nonspuriousness |
| Association | A criterion for establishing a nomothetic causal relationship between two variables: Variation in one variable is related to variation in another variables |
| experimental group | A manipulation of the value of the independent variable |
| control group | In a simple experiment, there may be one other group that does not receive the treatment |
| During a Causal explanation it is important that the dependent variable occurs (before or after) the variation in the independent variable. | Before |
| in a true experiment, the time order is determined by the ____________. | Researcher |
| Nonspurious | is the most important criterion for causal effect |
| Nonspurious | A criterion for establishing a causal relation between 2 variables; when a relationship between 2 variables is not due to variation in a 3rd variable |
| "Spurious Relationship" | A relationship between 2 variables that is due to variation in a third variable |
| Extraneous Variable | A variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables so as to create a spurious association between them that disappears when the extraneous variable is controlled |
| What should you use to reduce the risk of spuriousness? | Randomization |
| Randomization | The random assignment of cases, as by the toss of a coin |
| Random Assignment | A procedure by which each experimental subject is placed in a group randomly, a distinction from random sampling |
| What do nonexperimental researchers use as a alternative approach to try to achieve the criterion of nonspuriousness? | Statistical Control |
| Statistical Control | A method in which one variable is held constant so that the relationship between two (or more other variables can be assessed without the influence of variation in the control variable |
| Mechanism | A discernible process that creates a causal connection between 2 variables; creates a connection b/n variation in an independent variable and the variation in the dependent variable it is hypothesized to cause |
| Contextual Effect | Causal process vary across neighborhoods, organizations, regions, over time, different types of people; When relationships among variables differ across geographic units such as countries or across other social settings |
| Contextual Effect | Relationships among variables that vary among geographic units or other social settings |
| Context | A focus of idiographic causal explanation; a particular outcome is understood as part of a larger set of interrelated circumstances |
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1StellarStar