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Comm Midterm 1.1
Communications Midterm 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Why Theory? | -Kurt Lewin -we have informal (and often wrong) theories about many things (naive scientists) |
| Ways of knowing a theory (personal) | -Experience (fault: may not be relative to place and time) -Authority (could be wrong) -Science (systematic [structured/organized] observation) |
| Objective Theories (vs. Interpretive) | -Scientific -Assumes reality is "out there" -emphasizes objectivity -stresses forces affecting people -considers individual choice and information processing -probabilistic (tendencies for events occur b/c meant to happen [race, status...]) |
| Goals of Science | 1) Prediction (how certain people will behave given certain circumstances) 2) Explanation (why something happens) 3) Understanding (Causal process closely tied to explanation; understanding process) 4) Control (control outcomes) |
| Desirable Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge | 1) Abstractness (independence of time and space; the more general the better) 2) Intersubjectivity (agreement about meaning among scientists) 3) Empirical Relevance (ability to compare observed reality) |
| What is a Scientific Theory | a set of (multiple) abstract statements that conform to one of three forms of theory statements (set of laws, axiomatic, causal process) |
| "Set of Laws" Form of Theory | -Independent statements, must be confirmed by evidence first -each statement refers to something known to be true on the basis of substantial evidence -very difficult in social sciences [a lot of research before formalization (hard science) |
| Axiomatic Form of Theory | -axioms (a statement that is known as being established, accepted, or self-evidently true) and propositions (assumed to be true) -social science |
| Logical Syllogism | -Propositions are derived from axioms -if the axioms are correct, the propositions must be correct e.g. id B is taller than A, and C is taller than B, then C is taller than A Axiom 1: If A then B Axiom 2: If B then C Proposition: If A, then C |
| Causal Process Form of Theory | -All statements of equal value -about relationships among variables (variables: things that may vary such as height, eye color, how friendly/talkative...) -social science -see graph |
| Inductive vs. Deductive Theory Construction | Inductive: -make specific observations then construct abstract generalizations Deductive: -logically derive abstract statements then apply them to specific instances COMPLEMENTARY: -do both at the same time |
| Types of Systematic Observation | Quantitative -the use of numbers in research -can quantify things like personality -done through special techniques (sampling, standardized tests) Qualitative -less directive and controlled -"richer" data -focus on groups, observation, ethno |
| Criteria for Evaluating Scientific Theories | 1) Explains Why 2) Predicts the future 3) Parsimonious (simpler the better) 4) Testable/falsifiable 5) Practical Utility 6) Broad in Scope 7) Logically Consistent 8) Heuristic Value (can spawn new ideas) |
| Micro vs. Macro Levels | Small distinction/view--> broad perspective/view Individual --> dyadic comm --> small group/families-->organizations--> inter-cultural--> mass communication |
| Communication Theory Paradigms | |
| What is the meaning of Proxemics? | The study of people's use of space as special elaboration of culture |
| Interaction Adaption Theory (IAT) is a theoretical extension of ____ ? | Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT) |
| TRUE OR FALSE: Burgoon was criticized because he failed to offer practical advice on how two better achieve the goals of ... | False |
| What does Violation Valence mean? | The perceived positive or negative value assigned to a breach of expectations, regardless of who the violator is (net worth) |
| T or F: Communication reward valence is a result of mental audits of likely gain and loses from communicating with an individual? | True |
| According to the Social Penetration Theory, which of the following are two aspects of self-disclosure that are important to establishing closeness in relationships? | Depth and Breadth |
| T or F: Depenetration occurs when individuals begin to slowly withdraw from each other | True |
| According to the Social Penetration Theory, the main route to deep social penetration is | Self-Disclosure |
| T or F: According to the Communication Management Theory (CMT), people believe their private information belongs to them and they have control over this information | True |
| Communication Management Theory (CMT) states that _____ is a metaphor to show how people think of borders between private and public information | Privacy Boundaries |
| What perspective views CMC relationships as more intimate than face to face? | Hyperpersonal Perspective |
| Over an extended period of time, what will happen to a CMC relationship? | It will become similar to face to face intimacy |
| Cues filtered out CMC argues that relationships don't form as well online as face to face because it occurs only through ... | text-only components |
| T or F: Time and Advances limit Social Information Processing Theory's (SIP) scope | True |
| T or F: Face to face always has a higher quality of relational communication that CMC (Communication Privacy Management Theory) | False |
| Interpretive Theories | Interpretive Less Scientific Assumes reality is "in here" Without us experiencing it directly, we don't think of what is out there Perspective (murderer or hero?) |
| Communication | The relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response |
| Text | A record of a message that can be analyzed by others; for example a book, film, photograph, or any transcript, or recording of a speech or broadcast |
| Behavioral Scientist | A scholar who applies the scientific method to describe, predict, and explain recurring forms of human behavior |
| Rhetorician | A scholar who studies the ways in which symbolic forms can be used to identify with people, or to persuade them toward a certain point of view |
| Objective approach | the assumption that truth is singular and is accessible through unbiased sensory observation; committed to uncovering cause-and-effect relationships |
| Source Credibility | Perceived competence and trustworthiness of a speaker or writer that affects how the message is received |
| Identification | A perceived role relationship that affect self-image and attitudes; based on attractiveness of the role model and sustained if the relationship remains salient |
| Interpretive Approach | The linguistic work of assigning meaning or value to communicative texts; assumes that multiple meanings or truths are possible |
| Burke's dramatistic Pentad | A five-pronged method of rhetorical criticism to analyze a speaker's persuasive strategy-act, scene, agent, agency, purpose |
| Humanistic Scholarship | Study of what it's like to be another person in a specific time and place; assumes there are few important panhuman similarities |
| Epistemology | The study of the origin, nature, method, and limits of knowledge |
| Determinism | The assumption that behavior is caused by heredity and environment |
| Empirical Evidence | Data collected through direct observation |
| Emancipation | Liberation from any form of political, economic, racial, religious, or sexual oppression; empowerment |
| Metatheory | Theory about theory; the stated or inherent assumptions made when creating a theory |
| Rule of Parsimony (Occam's razor) | Given two plausible explanations for the same event, we should accept the simpler version |
| Falsifiability | The requirement that scientific theory must be state in such a way that it can be tested and disproved if it is indeed wrong |
| Experiment | A research method that manipulates a variable in a tightly controlled situation in order to find out if it has the predicted effect |
| Survey | A research method that uses questionnaires and structured interviews to collect self-reported data that reflects what respondents think, feel, or intend to do |
| Self-referential Imperative | Include yourself as a constituent of your own construction |
| Ethical Imperative | Grant others that occur in your construction the same autonomy you practice constructing them |
| Critical Theorists | Scholars who use theory to reveal unjust communication practices that create or perpetuate an imbalance of power |
| Textual Analysis | A research method that describes and interprets the characteristics of any text |
| Ethnography | A method of participant observation designed to help a researcher experience a culture's complex web of meaning |
| Cybernetics | The study of information processing, feedback, and control in communication systems |
| Rhetoric | The art of using all available means of persuasion focusing upon lines of argument, organization of ideas, language use, and delivery in public speaking |
| Semiotics | The study of verbal and nonverbal signs that can stand for something else, and how their interpretation impacts society |
| Symbols | Arbitrary words and nonverbal signs that bear no natural connection with the things they describe; their meaning is learned within a given culture |
| Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity | the claim that the structure of a language shapes what people think and do; the social construction of reality |
| Culture Industries | Entertainment businesses that reproduce the dominant ideology of a culture and distract people from recognizing unjust distribution of power within society (e.g. film, television, music, and advertising) |
| Phenomenology | Intentional analysis of everyday experience from the standpoint of the person who is living it; explores the possibility of understanding the experience of self and others |
| Pragmatism | An applied approach to knowledge; the philosophy that true understanding of an idea or situation has practical implications for action |
| Symbolic Interaction | The ongoing use of language and gestures in anticipation of how the other will react; a conversation |
| Minding | An inner dialogue used to test alternatives, rehearse actions, and anticipate reactions before responding; self-talk |
| Taking the role of the other | The process of mentally imagining that you are someone else viewing you |
| Looking-glass self | The mental self-image that results from taking the role of the other; the objective self; me |
| I | The subjective self; the spontaneous driving force that fosters all that is novel, unpredictable, and unorganized in the self |
| Me | The objective self; the image of self seen when one take the role of the other |
| Generalized other | the composite mental image a person has of his or her self based on societal expectations and responses |
| Participant observation | a method of adopting the stance of an ignorant yet interested visitor who carefully notes what people say and do in order to discover how they interpret their world |
| Self-fulfilling prophecy | The tendency for our expectations to evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated |
| Responsive "I" | The self created by the way we respond to others |
| Ethical Echo | The reminder that we are responsible to take care of each other; I am my brother's keeper |
| Face of the "Other" | A human signpost that points to our ethical obligation to care for the other before we care for self |
| Threat Threshold | The hypothetical outer boundary of intimate space; a breach by an uninvited other occasions fight or flight |
| Arousal, relational | a heightened state of awareness, orienting response, or mental alertness that stimulates a review of the relationship |
| Expectancy | What people predict will happen, rather than what they desire |
| Violation Valence | The perceived positive or negative value assigned to a breach of expectations, regardless of who the violator is |
| Communicator Reward Valence | The sum of positive and negative attributes brought to the encounter plus the potential to reward or punish in the future |
| Interaction Adaptation Theory | A systematic analysis of how people adjust their approach when another's behavior doesn't mesh with what's needed, anticipated, or preferred |
| Interaction Position | A person's initial stance toward an interaction as determined by a blend of personal requirements, expectations, and desires (RED) |
| Reciprocity | A strong human tendency to respond to another's action with similar behavior |
| Categorical imperative | Duty without exception; act only on that maxim which you can will to become a universal law |
| Social Penetration | The process of developing deeper intimacy with another person through mutual self-disclosure and other forms of vulnerability |
| Personality structure | Onion-like layers of beliefs and feelings about self, others, and the world; deeper layers are more vulnerable, protected, and central to self-image |
| Self-Disclosure | The voluntary sharing of personal history, preferences, attitudes, feelings, values, secrets, etc., with another person; transparency |
| Depth of Penetration | The degree of disclosure in a specific area of an individual's life |
| Law of reciprocity | A paced and orderly process in which openness in one person leads to openness in the other; "you tell me your dream; I'll tell you mine" |
| Breadth of Penetration | The range of areas in an individual's life over which disclosures take place |
| Social exchange | Relationship behavior and status regulated by both parties' evaluations of perceived rewards and costs of interaction with each other |
| Outcome | The perceived rewards minus the costs of interpersonal interaction |
| Minimax Principle of human behavior | People seek to maximize their benefits and minimize their costs |
| Comparison Level (CL) | The threshold above which an interpersonal outcome seems attractive; a standard for relational satisfaction |
| Comparison level of alternatives (CLalt) | The best outcome available in other relationships; a standard for relational stability Optimum: Outcome>CLalt>CL |
| Ethical Egoism | The belief that individuals should live their lives so as to maximize their own pleasure and minimize their own pain |
| Dialectical Model | The assumption that people want both privacy and intimacy in their social relationships; they experience a tensions between disclosure and withdrawal |
| Territoriality | The tendency to claim a physical location or object as our own |
| CMC | Computer-mediated communication; text-based messages, which filter out most nonverbal cues |
| Social Presence Theory | Suggests that CMC deprives users of the sense that another actual person is involved in the interaction |
| Media richness theory | Purports that CMC bandwidth is too narrow to convey rich relational messages |
| Cues filtered out | interpretation of CMC that regards lack of nonverbal cues as a ftal flaw for using the medium for relationship development |
| Boundary condition | a statement that limits the context a theory is meant to describe |
| Impression formation | The composite mental image on person forms of another |
| Anticipated future interaction | a way of extending psychological time; the likelihood of future interaction motivates CMC users to develop a relationship |
| Chronemics | The study of people's systematic handling of time in their interaction with others |
| Hyperpersonal Perspective | The claim that CMC relationships are often more intimate than those developed when partners are physically together |
| Selective Self-presentation | an online positive portrayal without fear of contradiction, which enable people to create a overwhelmingly favorable impression |
| Social Identity Deindividuation (SIDE) | A theory that suggests CMC users overestimate their similarity with others they meet in online interest groups |
| Asynchronous Channel | A non-simultaneous medium of communication that each individual can use when he or she desires |
| Self-fulfilling Prophecy | The tendency for a person's expectation of others to evoke a response from them that confirms what was originally anticipated |
| Warranting Value | Reason to believe that information is accurate, typically because the target of the information cannot manipulate it |
| Attribution Theory | A systematic explanation of how people draw inferences about the character of others based upon observed behavior |
| Uncertainty Reduction | Increased knowledge of what kind of person another is, which provides an improved forecast of how a future interaction will turn out |
| Axiom | A self-evident truth that requires no additional proof |
| Theorem | A proposition that logically and necessarily follows from two axioms |
| Message plans | Mental representations of action sequences that may be used to achieve goals |
| Passive strategy | Impression formation by observing a person interacting with others |
| Active strategy | Impression formation through face to face discussion with a person |
| Plan complexity | a characteristic of a message plan based on the level of detail it provides and the number of contingencies it covers |
| Hedging | Use of strategic ambiguity and humor to provide a way for both parties to save face when a message fails to achieve its goal |
| Hierarchy hypothesis | The prediction that when people are thwarted in their attempts to achieve goals, their first tendency is to alter lower-level elements of their message |
| Mindfulness | The process of thinking in new categories, being open to new information, and recognizing multiple perspectives |
| Predicted outcome value | A forecast of future benefits and costs of interaction based on limited experience with the other |
| Symbols | arbitrary signs • “a stimulus that has a learned meaning and value for people” • e.g. letters, symbols, flags |
| Interaction | what individuals do to communicate • We communicate with things other than words |
| Symbolic interaction | • Communicating via symbols, not just with language • E.g. a slap |
| Blumer's Premise #1 | Meaning • Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things • Perception is reality |
| Blumer's Premise #2 | Language • Meaning arises out of the social interaction that people have with each other |
| Blumer's Premise #3 | -An individual’s interpretation of symbols is modified by his/her own thought processes -Take the role of another person to understand what the symbol means E.g.we put ourselves in their position and change the meaning according to perception of speake |
| the "self" | the combination of the "I" and the "me" |
| Expectancy Violation Theory | o Fundamental idea is that certain violations of social norms may produce more desirable outcomes than conformity • This contrasts to typical assumptions that violating a norm produces negative responses |
| Arousal | o Increased by expectancy violations o Increased arousal produces more thinking (vs. formerly unconscious) o Violation → arousal → thinking |
| Behavior Interpretation and Evaluation | o Sometime unambiguous o When ambiguous, interpreted based on communicator reward valence (+ or – evaluation of the person who enacted the behavior) |
| Putting It all Together | See Diagram |
| Interpersonal Deception Theory | o Most people are bad at identifying deception • The average rate of detection is 50% |
| Deception | o A message knowingly transmitted by a sender to foster a false belief or conclusion by the receiver •Falsification- lying •Concealment/Omission •Equivocation- trying to distract, not answer the question, dodge the issue |
| Core Assumptions of Interpersonal Deception Theory | 1) Interpersonal communication is interactive 2) Deception takes mental effort |
| Why deceive | o To accomplish a task o To establish or maintain a relationship o To “save face” • So you or someone else doesn’t look bad • White lies |
| Truth Bias | o Our persistent expectation that people will tell the truth o An almost necessary heuristic based on social contract |
| Deceptive Message Components | o Central deceptive message (usually verbal) o Ancillary messages (verbal or non-verbal) designed to bolster central message o Leakage: unconscious (mostly) nonverbal cues that signal the deceptive intent or “truth” |
| Reliable Indicators of Deception | o Increased adaptors o Increased blinking o Frequent speech errors o Increased hesitations/pauses o Higher voice pitch o Increased discrepancies between verbal and nonverbal channels |
| Unreliable Indicators of Deception | o Eye Contact o Smiling o Hurried Speech o Other facial expressions |
| Suspicion | o A state of doubt or distrust that is held without sufficient evidence or proof |
| The Four-Factor Model of Deception | o Tells us why people behave differently when lying than when telling the truth • Attempted control • Arousal • Felt emotions • Cognitive effort |
| Propositions of the Interpersonal Deception Theory | SEE SHEET |
| Social Penetration Theory | o Main point is that relationships develop over time through increased intimacy produced by self-disclosure |
| Assumptions | o Relationships progress from non-intimate to intimate • E.g. Non-Intimate ------time-------→ Intimate o Self-disclosure is at the core of relationship development |
| • Self-Disclosure | o The process of revealing information about oneself • Breadth: the number of topics discussed in the relationship • Depth: the “privateness” of topics discussed (reflects degree of intimacy) |
| Onion Analogy | pg 118 |
| Observations about Social Penetration Processes | oPeripheral information is exchanged more frequently and sooner than private information oSelf-disclosure is reciprocal oPenetration is rapid at first but slows quickly due to “thickness” of layers oDepenetration is a gradual process of withdrawal |
| Social Exchange Theory | people evaluate relationship on a cost/benefit basis o Goals based on the MinMax principle • Minimize costs • Maximize rewards o Assessing costs and rewards |
| CL and CLalt | • Threshold above which an outcome seems attractive • Threshold above which relationship remain stable See Table |
| Communication Privacy Management Theory | about direct link between self-disclosure and intimacy Individuals vary in their rules for self-disclosure • Oversharers |
| CPM Theory: Core Principle #1 | • People believe they own and have a right to control their private information |
| CPM Theory: Core Principle #2 | • People control their private information through the use of personal privacy rules affected by o Culture o Gender o Interpersonal motives o Context of conversation o Risk-Benefit Ratio |
| CPM Theory: Core Principle #3 | • When others are told or discover a person’s private information, they become co-owners of it |
| CPM Theory: Core Principle #4 | • Co-owners of private information need to negotiate mutually agreeable privacy rules about telling others |
| CPM Theory: Core Principle #5 | • When co-owners don’t effectively negotiate and follow joint privacy rules, it can result in boundary turbulence o When agreement on privacy rules and boundary management is not maintained and affects relationship |
| Boundary ownership | • If you are the only one who knows the information, you control who else knows • If you tell others, you can’t control result |
| Boundary linkage | • Now multiple individuals who’s boundaries for sharing information need to be linked |
| Boundary permeability | • How important is it to maintain the boundaries |
| Uncertainty Reduction Theory | • Emphasis is on how people use communication to gain knowledge and create understanding in relationships -process of acquiring information that allows you to eliminate ambiguity about another person |
| Naive Scientists | constantly working to develop theories in understand why people behave they do |
| Attribution theory | we strive to understand why people behave the way they do o Dispositions- characteristics of the individual o Situations- behavior determined by relative circumstances |
| Drive for Uncertainty Reduction | universal drive to reduce uncertainty amplified by o 1) Anticipated future interaction o 2) Incentive value- what can this person do for you? o 3) Deviance – not typical, weird |
| Information-Seeking Strategies | • Passive o Observe the person from a distance • Active o Ask someone else for information about the person • Interactive o Direct requests for information from the person |
| Axiom 1 | More verbal communication leads to lower levels of uncertainty |
| Axiom 2 | More nonverbal affiliative expressiveness leads to lower levels of uncertainty (smiling, nodding..) |
| Axiom 3 | High levels of uncertainty leads to increases in information seeking behavior |
| Axiom 4 | High levels of uncertainty decrease intimacy levels (i.e. self disclosure) |
| Axiom 5 | High levels of uncertainty produce high rates of reciprocity As you get to know someone, there is less of a demand for information to given back immediately |
| Axiom 6 | Similarities between individuals reduce uncertainty |
| Axiom 7 | High levels of uncertainty decrease liking |
| Axiom 8 | Shared communication networks reduce uncertainty |
| Social Information Processing Theory (SIP) | o Main point is that CMC (computer mediated communication) is not necessarily worse for relationship development than FTF (face to face) |
| Cues Filtered Out (Social Presence Theory&Media Richness Theory) | • Social Presence Theory • Media Richness Theory said that face to face was the best part of communication. All forms of technological communication did not contain the ways face to face can • Example: facial expressions, vocal cues |
| Social Presence Theory | Due to the technological mediation, it is not impactful because you are not seeing it; disconnection; doesn’t feel like you’re there |
| Media Richness Theory | Communication messages are not as rich through technology because you do not have the vocal cues, facial expressions, etc. have |
| Claims of Cues Filtered Out | o Lack of nonverbal cues (65-93% of meaning) in CMC • Vocalics • Proxemics • Kinesics (facial expressions) • Haptics (touching someone) o Time Delays in CMC (• Synchronous vs. asynchronous systems) |
| SIP Key Assumption | o Interpersonal information → impression formation → Relationship development |
| Compare face to face and CMC (computer mediated communication) | o Different sounds (computer voice and human voice) o When you add different vocal and facial cues, you can have different meanings. CMC cannot do this |
| SIP says CMC users can adapt | o Verbal cues can be added to replace non-verbal cues • Emoticons• Acronyms and initialism • Time (September 24, 2012) o As long as there is sufficient time, CMC catches up to FTF in terms of relationship development |
| Hyperpersonal Perspective | • CMC-only interactions can actually produce more intimate relationship than if interactants are communicating FTF o Selective self-presentation o Negative cues filtered out intentionally o Facilitated by asynchronous CMC |
| Receiver Processes | o Over-attribution of similarity produces idealized image o Social identity-deindividuation (SIDE) model |
| Warranting Value of Information (SIP) | o Low warrant information: when you’re in control of presenting (info about yourself) o High warrant information: when others communicate about you |
| SIP’s Boundary Conditions | focused on the technology of the time, which was text-based online communication (not Skype or Facebook where you post pics; but e-mail and online chat) |
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dance4ever693