DIGESTION AND EXCRETION
Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in
each of the black spaces below before clicking
on it to display the answer.
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| Digestive tract from start to finish | mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
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| alpha-amylase | break down starch
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| relationship between pharynx, larynx, and trachea | -pharynx-connect inner nose to throat
-larynx-below pharynx that has vocal cords
-trachea - below larynx that leads to lungs
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| epiglottis | separates pharynx and larynx to prevent food from entering respiratory tract
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| Describe musculature of esphagus | -starts with striated and ends with smooth
(voluntary and involuntary mvmt)
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| cardiac sphincter (lower esophageal) | allows food to pass from esophagus to stomach
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| mucus cells | produce epithelial lining made of sticky glycopx and electrolytes
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| chief cx | secrete pepsinogen
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| function of pepsinogen | digest px
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| parietal cx | -secrete HCl
-secrete intrinsic factor
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| Function of HCl in digestion? | -lower pH of stomach and raise pH of blood
-kill bacteria
-break down intracx bond of food
-activate pepsinogen --> pepsin
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| G-cx | secrete gastrin
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| What does gastrin do? | -stimulates parietal cx to secrete HCl
-mix stomach contents to produce chyme
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| Function of intrinsic factor in digestion? | helps ileum absorb vitamin B12
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| How does acetylcholine affect secretion of stomach juices? | increases secretion of all cx types
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| How does gastrin / histamine affect secretion of stomach juices? | increases HCl secretion
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| gastric juice made of? | HCl, pepsinogen, mucus, intrinsic factor, gastrin, BICARBONATE
(think homeostasis!)
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| Function of bicarbonate in digestion? | protects mucosa lining
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| ulcer | portion of mucosal lining digested and hole forms
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| What does sphincter connects stomach to small intestine? | pyloric sphincter
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| Where does most digestion occur? most absorption? | -digestion: duodenum
-absorption: jejunum and ileum
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| Lining of small intestine is covered with what? | villi
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| What is inside each villi? | capillary network and lymph vessel (lacteal)
-some nutrients go into capillary and some into lymph vessel
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| What covers villi? | Microvilli (brush border) aka enterocytes
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| What does brush border have? | -mem-bound digestive enzymes
-goblet cx that produce mucus for protection
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| Cryptes of LIeberkunn-where and what does it do? | -located deep between villi
-secrete intestinal juice with pH 7.6 and lysozyme
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| lysozyme | regulates bacteria within intestine
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| When food first enters duodenum, what is released? | Cholecystokinin (CCK)
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| What does CCK do and what is it released in response to? | -Causes gallbladder, liver, and pancreas to release substances into duodenum
-inhibits gastric emptying and gastric acid secretion
-px or fat rich chyme
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| What does pancreas release? | Trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase, lipase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease
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| What is the pH inside duodenum? | pH = 6 because of bicarbonate
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| Secretin | causes release of pancreatic juice from pancreas
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| What is pancreatic juice? | enzymes in bicarbonate solution
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| At what pH are pancreatic enzymes most active? | 8.5
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| enterokinase | activates trypsinogen --> trypsin
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| What is importance of trypsin? | activates all other zymogens
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| In what form are peptidases released from pancreas? | zymogens
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| What are examples of pancreatic peptidases? | trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, elastinogen, carboxypeptidase
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| What is the exocrine fxn of pancreas? | -secrete pancreatic juice into small intestines
-release enzymes from acinar cx through pancreatic duct
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| What is endocrine fxn of pancreas? | releases insulin and glucagon directly into blood
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| How is bile released? | bile stored in gallbladder --> joins with common bile duct --> joins pancreatic duct --> duodenum
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| Where is bile produced and where is it stored? | produced by liver and stored in gallbladder
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| What is bile made of? | bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol
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| How is bile released? | released in response to hx CCK
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| What is pH of bile | 7.5-8.8 to neutralize acid chyme
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| Why are bile salts important? | hydrolyzes ester bonds to increase SA of fats
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| Does bile breakdown fats? | NO
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| Where does bile go after it has done its job? | reabsorbed by small intestine and transported back to liver
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| Where does bile get its color? | bilirubin (end product of hemo degradation)
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| 2 main functions of large intestine? | 1. water absorption
2. electrolyte abosrption
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| 3 major sections | cecum, colon, rectum
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| cecum | connects small and large intestine
-also has appendix
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| colon | absorbs salt and water
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| rectum | storage for feces
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| anus | -where waste is eliminated
-has voluntary and involuntary sphincters
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| What gives rise to anus? | blastopore
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| What is function of e.coli in large intestine? | metabolize fiber, produce vitamin K, B12, thiamin, riboflavin
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| Why do most fats bypass liver? | -directly enter circulation w/o going to hepatic portal
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| Where do carbs and a.a. go before they are released to rest of body? | hepatic portal circulation
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| What happens after absorbed fats absorbed through intestinal wall? | -fats reform into triglycerides at smooth ER
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| What happens after absorbed fats are reformed to triglycerides? | packaged into insoluble chylomicrons that enter lymphatic circulation through lacterals
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| What do chylomicrons do? | chylomicrons enter venous circulation and stick to capillary walls and combine with lipoprotein lipase
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| lipoprotein lipase | hydrolyzes triglyercides in the bloodstream
--> products of hydrolysis are taken up by liver and repackaged into HDL, LDL, etc.
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| Between meals, 95% of protein is in the form of? | lipoprotein
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| VLDL | transport triglycerides from liver to adipose tissue
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| LDL | transport cholesterol / phospholipid
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| Lacteals converge and dump contents into ___________ that then enters systematic circulation. | thoracic duct
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| What happens to proteins and carbs? | absorbed by blood and taken up by cx (esp. by liver)
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| What causes allergic rxn? | any protein that is not completely broken down
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| What happens inside cx with a.a.? | cx immediately creates px from a.a. so intracell a.a. concentration stays low
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| What happens when cx reach upper limit for px storage? | -a.a. are burned for energy
-a.a. are converted to fat for storage
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| Calorie rate for proteins, carbs, fats? | -px - 4
-carbs - 4.5
-fats - 9
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| How are proteins transported into cell? | transported down conc. gradient of sodium
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| gluconeogenesis | creation of glucose / glycogen in liver from a.a., glycerol, lactic acid
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| What is byproduct of gluconeogenesis? | ammonia
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| How to get rid of ammonia? | liver converts ammonia to urea and excreted in urine by kidney
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| What causes secretin release? | HCl in duodenum
-causes bicarbonate release from pancreas (natural antacid)
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| What is main fxn of stomach? | stores food and releases a little at a time to be digested
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| How is glucose transported with sodium into cell? | -sodium is pumped out of enterocyte
-resulting low sodium drags sodium and glucose from outside to inside
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| All carbs absorbe din blood are carried to? | liver!
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| Most carbs are turned into? | glycogen
--> too full? --> fat
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| What enzymes does small intestinal mucosa release? | maltase, lactase, sucrase, peptidase, dipeptidase, secretin, CCK
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| What enzymes does stomach release? | HCl, pepsinogen, mucus, bicarbonate, water, intrinsic factor, gastrin
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| What does pancreatic juice release? | trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase, lipase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease
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| secretin vs. CCK | -secretin released in response to H+ and causes pancreatic juice release -->bicarbonate release
-CCK released in response to fats/px and causes pancreatic juice and bile release
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| Where is bile derived from? | cholesterol
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| Role of liver and fats | breaks down fats, makes cholesterol, makes lipopx
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| Role of liver and vitamins | stores vitamins B12, A, D and iron
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| Role of liver and detox | metabolize alcohol, transform ammonia --> urea, remove toxins
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| Structure of liver and where does ducts drain to? | -largest gland in the body
-duodenum and gall bladder
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| Active transport for glucose. Intestinal lumen has ____ glucose while enterocyte has ______ glucos. | low / high
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| Facilitated diffusion for glucose. Enterocyte has ______ glucose while extracx fluid has _____ glucose. Glucose will enter ______ | high / low / bloodsream
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| Why is bicarbonate from pancreas important for neutralizing acidic chyme? | enzymes would be denatured
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| Does large intestine have folds or villi? | NO
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| Anal sphincter | at end of rectum
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| Name all sphincters | cardiac, pyloric, anal
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| Where does urine go once its made in kidneys? | kidney - calyces - renal pelvis - ureter - bladder - urethra
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| What are 5 parts of nephron? | glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule, descending and ascending LOH, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct
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| What is function of kidneys? | 1. excrete wastes
2. maintain homeostasis
3. control plasma pH
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| Glomerulus is surrounded by? | Bowman's capsule
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| renal corpuscle? | glomerulus + bowman's capsule
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| What forces plasma through fenestrations into Bowman's capsule? | hydrostatic pressure
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| How much of blood that passes through glomerulus passes into Bowman's capsule? | 20%
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| What does glomerulus retain and what passes through? | -erythrocytes and plasma px
-water, electrolytes, organic solutes (low MW), urea
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| Where does blood go that didn't pass into Bowman's capsule? | efferent arterioles and then vasa recta
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| Where does major reabsorption and secretion take place? | Proximal convoluted tubule
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| What happens in proximal convoluted tubule? | -reabsorb all nutrients,px, and most ions
-secrete wastes
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| What does PCT secrete? How does it secrete hydrogen ions? | -ammonia, toxins, hydrogen ions
-secrete through an antiport system with sodium
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| What does PCT reabsorb? | glucose, proteins, sodium, calcium through secondary active transport
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| transport maxima | concentration of solute that saturates transport px
-when transport max reached, any non-absorbed solute will go into urine
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| What is result of teh PCT? | reduce amount of filtrate while changing solute composition without changing osmolarity
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| How is water reabsorbed in the PCT? | across tight junctions
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| What do diuretics do? | -help body get rid of excess fluids
-inhibit reabsorption of sodium
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| What are the 2 types of arterioles in the kidneys? | -afferent - lead to glomeruli
-efferent - lead to vasa recta
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| How does LOH differ from PCT in terms of secretion and absorption? | more specific
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| ascending LOH and type of transport | permeable to salt not water - reabsorption of salt
-salt passively diffuses out and then actively
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| descending LOH and type of transport | permeable to water not salt - reabsorption of water
-water passively diffuses out
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| Where is kidney cortex and what does cortex contain? | -outer shell of kidney
-contains convoluted tubules
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| Where is kidney medulla and what does it contain? | -inner part of kidney
-LOH
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| What is function for distal convoluted tubule? | -aldosterone acts here to reabsorb sodium and secrete potassium
-PTH acts here to reabsorb calcium
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| What is function of collecting ducts? | -ADH acts here to reabsorb water
-urea recycling
-reabsorb / secrete various ions
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| Regulation of blood pH in kidneys? | -secrete H+ when blood too acidic
-secrete bicarbonate when blood to basic
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| Countercurrent multiplier mechanism | -creates osmotic gradient down LOH for collecting duct to concentrate urine
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| What drives creation of countercurrent gradient? | -sodium pump on ascending limb
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| What's the multiplier in the countercurrent multiplier mechanism? | -longer the LOH, more each individual NaCl pump multiplies down length of LOH, more concentrated urine can be produced
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| In the ascending limb, sodium is actively diffused out but chloride ______ diffuses out. | passively
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| The collecting duct goes from the ______ to the ________ | cortex to medulla
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| Urea recycling | urea diffuse out of collecting duct back into LOH to help maintain osmotic gradient
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| What releases Aldosterone? | adrenal cortex in response to decrease in blood pressure
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| What does aldosterone do? | -increases ability of distal tubule to reabsorb sodium
-increases blood pressure
-increases potassium secretion
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| What does ADH do? | collecting duct becomes permeable to water
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| afferent arterioles constrict, GFR increases / decreases. efferent arterioles constrict, GFR increases / decreases. | - decreases
-increases
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| High hydrostatic pressure forces water out / in. High osmotic pressure forces water out / in. | - out
- in
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| What happens when you have diarrhea in terms of acid/base homeostasis? | metabolic acidosis
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| How can kidney help metabolic acidosis? | -decrease in pH stimulates DCT to secrete hydrogen and reabsorb as much bicarbonate as possible
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| Juxtoglomerular apparatus | juxtoglomerular cells and macula densa cells
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| What do j.g. cells sense and macula densa cells sense? | -j.g. - sense change in BP
-macula dense - sense changes in sodium concentration
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| When sodium concentration goes down in distal tubule, macula densa cells stimulate _____ secretion by j.g. cells | renin
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| What does renin do? | converts angiotensinogen --> angiotensin 1
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| What does angiotensin 2 do? | increases aldosterone secretion
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| What should ultimately be foudn in urine fluid? | urea, uric acid, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium
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| What SHOULD NEVER be in urine? | blood, protein, glucose
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| All blood received by liver will move to? | vena cava
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| What oxygenates the liver? | hepatic artery
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| Where do all nutrients absorbed as well as blood from all other organs travel through? | hepatic portal vein
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| Where are most erythrocytes destroyed? | spleen
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| Where is albumin, prothrombin, and fibrinogen produced? | liver
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| When liver metabolizes fat/proteins for energy, blood acidity ______ | increases
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| What are 2 principal parts of skin | epidermis and dermis
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| epidermis and what is it made of? | -avascular epithelial tissue
-stratified squamous epithelial tissue
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| dermis | vascular connective tissue derived from mesodermal cells
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| ADH is also called? | -vasopressin
-causes vasoconstriction
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| What is atrial natriuretic peptide and where is it released? | -released from heart
-antagonizes aldosterone and causes kidney to release more sodium and water
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| ANP vs. ADH | -vasodilation
-vasoconstriction
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| blood osmolarity is determined by _______ | Na Cl
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| what does PTH regulate in kidneys? | calcium absorption and phosphate excretion
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| How are amino acids excreted in kidneys? | amino acids --> ammonia --> urea --> peed out
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| What does the renin-angiotensin pathway respond to? | low blood pressure
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| What does ANP respond to? | high blood pressure
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| Vasoconstriction / dilation when too cold? Too hot? | -vasoconstriction of arterioles decrease blood supply
-vasodilation of arterioles increase blood supply
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| What does salt excrete? | -salts
-nitrogenous wastes
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| How does hair help insulate the body? | traps air in them
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| Where is fat layer located in skin? | hypodermis
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| Where are sweat glands, blood vessels, and hair follicles located? | dermis
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| What is function of keratin? | -protect against abrasion
-waterproof seal
-block out pathogens
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| Where is keratin found? | nail, skin, hair
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| How does sweat provide chemical protection? | sweat is acidic and contains antibodies and antimicrobial agents
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| What are benefits of natural flora? | fight of bad bacteria
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| keratinocytes and how are they produced? | -cells that produce keratin
-start off like normal cells at bottom of epidermis, get flatter as you go up, and become dead keratin plates at surface
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| melanocytes | cells that make melain
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| Langerhans cells | phagocytes that eat pathogens
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| What is found in epidermis? | keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells
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| What is found in dermis? | fibroblasts, hair follicles, sweat glands, oil glands, blood vessels
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| fibroblasts | make fiber and "glue" for extracx matrix that makes up connective tissue
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| Why is skin relatively impermeable to water? | layer of dead, keratin-packed cells sealed with glycolipids
-skin oil contributes to some (glands not present in palms and soles)
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| What is the source of energy that forces fluid into capsular space? | blood pressure from heart
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| What would happen if heart stopped with GFR? | fluid in space around glomerulus would flow back into capillary blood
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| Low BP allows for ______ time for GFR | decreased
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| In proximal convoluted tubule, filtrate is _______ to surrounding interstitium | isotonic
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| Tm = | tubular transport maximum
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| What is the major osmoregulatory px in blood? | albumin
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| What is part of the excretory system? | skin, lungs, kidney
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| What is part of the digestive system? | mouth to anus
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| Why are micelles circular? | to minimize exposure to hydrophilic surfacs
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| What makes up the kidney filter system? | glomerulus and Bowman's capsule
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| What is the normal volume of urine? | 1-2L
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| What is the shortest part of the small intestine? | duodenum
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| Where does most absorption occur? | jejunum and ileum
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| What is the beginning of the large intestine? | cecum
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| Describe path of glucose and a.a. during filtration. | Glucose and a.a. are freely filtered and then reabsorbed by PCT and returned to circulation
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| What stimulates aldosterone? (particle) | angiotensin II
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| What does dehydration cause in kidneys and hypo? | release of renin from kidneys and stimulation of osmorx in hypo
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| Where is appendix located? | near cecum (jxn of small intestine and large intestine)
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| What are fat-soluble vs. water-soluble vitamins? | -fat soluble: Vitamins D, A, K, E
-water-soluble: Vitamins B, C
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| Hypocalcemia | low blood calcium
--> spastic twitches
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| What makes up glomerular capillary BP? | plasma osmotic P + Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure
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| What are the proteolytic enzymes from pancreas? | trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase
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| Perineum vs. Peritoneum | -perineum - area between legs that rips during birth
-peritoneum - cavity that contains pelvis, stomach, spleen, gall bladder, liver, intestines
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| An ulcer in wall of intestine would allow contents to enter perineum or peritoneum? | peritoneum
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| Digestion of carbs starts in? Proteins? Fats? | mouth / stomach / small intestine
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| liver and pancreas are associated with which system? | digestive
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| What is bile made of? | breakdown of hemoglobin, bilirubin, and bile salts
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| TO have a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic portion? | amphipathic
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| What vitamins do E.Coli produce? | Vit B12 and Vit K
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| Where is appendix located? | continuous with colon
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| What is the shortest and longest part of the small intestine? | duodenum / ileum
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| What stimulates parietal cells? | gastrin, AcH, and histamine
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| What is the best way to inhibit stomach acid synthesis? | inhibit proton pump
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| Is the digestive system a blind tube? | NO
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| What is the most important extracx ion? intracx ion? | Sodium / Potassium
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| What is one of the main nerves of the PNS in digestion? | vagus nerve
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| Where is oxytocin made? | Hypothalamus and stored in posterior pituitary
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| What areh most numerous gastric cell types? | chief cells
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| Main function of hypothalamus? | maintain homeostasis --> BP, body temp
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| Main function of medulla oblongata? | -controls rate of breathing
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| What would long-term lipase inhibition create? | depletion of fat-soluble vitamins (DAKE)
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| What are the digestive accessory organs? | liver, gall bladder, pancreas, salivary glands
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| Cortisol vs. insulin on glycolysis | -cortisol inhibits glycolysis
-insulin increases glycolysis
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| sodium / hydrogen antiport system used in kidneys | sodium in, hydrogen out
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| Is urine acidic or basic? | acidic
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| Is the renal filtration membrane negative or positive? | negative
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| somatostatin | inhibits release of insulin and glucagon
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| What test can check for Type 1 diabetes mellitus? Type 2? | -self-antibodies
-insulin receptor count
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| What are the main functions of colon? | -secretion of K+
-absorption of Na and water
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| Where are the main targets for aldosterone? | -distal convoluted tubule
-large intestine
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| What does ACTH cause the release of? | cortisol and aldosterone and other hx of adrenal cortex
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| The conversion of Vit D to is active form, synthesis of renin, and release of erythropoietin all occur where? | kidney
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| What does erythropoietin do? | activates bone marrow to produce red blood cells
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| primary active transport | moves cpds against concentration gradient with Na/K pump and ATP
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| secondary active transport | symport and antiport
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| Where is bicarbonate most important? | blood an GI tract
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|
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| acinar cells | secrete pancreatic digestive enzymes
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| Does insulin cause hyper or hypoglycemia? | hypoglycemia
🗑
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| Where does final disaccharide digestion/absorption occur? | brush border of small intestine
🗑
|
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| Difference btwn cilia and microvilli | microvilli are not motile
🗑
|
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| Is glucose ever secreted under normal circumstances? | NO
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|
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| What does alcohol and caffeine inhibit? | ADH
🗑
|
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| Why do diabetics have glucose in urine? | so much glucose isn't taken up by body that filtrate entering kidneys has a lot of glucose
-too much to filter
-gets into urine
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|
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| Is the esophagus purely involuntary muscle? | NO --> some voluntary for swallowing
🗑
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| What is sucrose made of? | frucotse and glucose
🗑
|
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| In the PCT, the reabsorbed fluid is _____ with the nephron lumenal contents? | isosmotic
🗑
|
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| hyperosmotic? | greater solute concentration in comparison
🗑
|
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| What does angeiotensin-converting enzyme do? | increases BP
🗑
|
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| Where are macula densa cx located? | distal convoluted tubule
🗑
|
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| What releases renin and when does it release it? | macula densa cx in response to low NaCl
🗑
|
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| Diuretics that affect what part of nephron will be most effective? | loop of henle
🗑
|
||||
| What reaction does dehydration create? | -release of renin from kidneys --> aldosterone
-stimulation of osmorx in hypo --> ADH release
🗑
|
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| What does thyroid hx cause? | increase basal metabolic rate and increase metabolism of all nutrients
-increase px synthesis
🗑
|
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| Where does most digestion and absorption occur? | jejunum
🗑
|
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| What are the 2 important tasks for large intestine? | water reabsorption and K secretion
🗑
|
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| What is hippocampus for? | emotion and sexuality
🗑
|
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| How are glucose, a.a., and phosphate reabsorbed in PCT? | secondary active transport
🗑
|
||||
| Is urea ever actively transported? | NO
🗑
|
||||
| Where does aldosterone act? | distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct, large intestine
🗑
|
||||
| What does aldosterone do with K and H? | -increases urine K with Na/K pump
-increases H in urine
🗑
|
||||
| Where is bicarbonate reabsorbed in nephron? | PCT
🗑
|
||||
| What are 2 important properties of hx action? | -receptor specificity
-signal amplification
🗑
|
||||
| When is aldosterone produced in response to? | low sodium / elevated potassium in blood
🗑
|
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