NEURONAL AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in
each of the black spaces below before clicking
on it to display the answer.
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| neuronal vs. hx communication | neuronal - rapid and direct
hx - slower and non-specific and long-lasting
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| Paracrine system | local mediators (px a.a. or f.a. derivatives) released into interstitial fluid --> NOT HORMONES
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| Give example of hx from paracrine system and what does it do | prostaglandins - smooth muscle contraction, inflammation
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| Why is paracrine system different than endocrine system? | hx are not produced at discrete site but in many places in body
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| What are nx dependent upon for energy? Does it depend on insulin to get glucose? | -glucose and aerobic respiration (no glycogen)
-no
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| Where does action potential originate? | axon hillock
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| What is sodium / potassium pump? | pump 3 Na+ out for 2 K+ in
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| When do voltage-gated K channels start to open? | When Na+ channels start to close
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| When is the cell at a resting potential? | when rate of Na+ passively diffusing back into cell = rate being pumped out
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| Is the Na/K pump ever NOT working? | NO
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| Is electrical synapse bidirectional / unidirectional and where can it be found? | -bidirectional
-cardiac muscle and visceral smooth muscle
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| Is chemical synapse bi/uni directional and where can it be found? | -unidirectional
-motor end plate (connect nx with muscle)
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| Brownian motion | random motion of molecules
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| What is slowest step in transferring nervous signal? | Ca2+ mediated ntm release
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| Does ntm enter postsynaptic cell? | NO --> ntm attaches to rx and postsynaptic mem becomes more permeable to ions or acts via 2nd messenger
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| How to get rid of enzyme (3)? | 1.) enzyme destroy
2. presynpatic recycling
3. diffuse out
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| Can a synapse release more than one ntm and both excite/inhibit? | NO
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| Can a single ntm both inhibit and excite? | YES
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| How does AcH act on heart vs. smooth muscle of intestine? | inhibitory / excitatory
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| Neuroglia? | capable of cx division and can multiply to fill space caused by brain injury
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| Microglia & oligodendrocytes | -phagocytize microbes and debris in CNS
-create myelin sheaths (only found in vertbrates) in CNS
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| Where are sensory/afferent nx located? Motor/efferent nx? | dorsally (back)
ventrally (front)
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| 2 divisions of nervous system and what are they? | -CNS-brain and spinal cord
-PNS-everything outside of brain and spinal cord / connects CNS to limbs and organs
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| What does PNS break into and what are they controlled by? Where do they receive signal from? | -Somatic nervous system (voluntary)
-autonomic nervous system (involuntary - controlled by hypothalamus)
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| What does ANS break into? | -parasympathetic (rest and digest)
-sympathetic (flight or fight)
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| Nucleus vs. ganglion | cell bodies located in CNS vs. cell bodies located outside CNS
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| postganglionic sympathetic nx. vs. postsympathetic paras. nx. | lie far from effectors vs. lie near effectors
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| Somatic nervous system 1. Once nerve fibers leave CNS, synapse where? 2. What does it release? 3. What does it innervate? 4. Excitation / inhibition | 1. Once nerve fibers leave CNS, don't make synapse till effector organ
2. release AcH
3. innervates skeletal muscle
4. excitation
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| Autonomic nervous system 1. Once nerve fibers leave CNS, synapse where? 2. What does it release in preganglionic? Postganglionic? 3. What does it innervate? 4. Excitation / inhibition | 1. nerve fibers leaving CNS synapse with ganglion before effector organ
2. preganglionic PNS and sympathetic both release AcH
---> postganglionic para. : AcH
---> postganglionic sympathetic: Norepi / epi
3. glands, smooth and cardiac muscle
4. both
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| AcH is used in? Norepi / epi is used in? | -SNS and PNS
-SNS only
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| Where are internx mostly found? Sensory and motor nx? | CNS
PNS
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| Path of light once it strikes eye? | cornea --> aq. humor--> pupil --> lens --> vitreous humor --> retina
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| Where does light bend most when it enters eye? | Cornea = refractive index of 1.4
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| How does iris regulate amount of light that enters eye? | ciliary muscle
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| What happens when ciliary muscle contracts? Relaxes? (circle opening, shape of lens, focal point) | -circle opening decreases, lens more spherical, bring focal point closer to lens
-lens flattens, increase focal distance, circle opening increases
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| What type of lens is eye? | -converging/convex --> real and inverted image
-object must be outside focal distance
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| Fovea and what is it made of? | mostly cones and most accurate vision
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| What are rods made of? What happens when light strikes rods? | -rhodopsin
-photon strikes retinal in rhodopsin, causes hyperpolarization, transduced into neural signal to brain
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| What is the precursor for all pigments in rods and cones? | vitamin A
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| Process of sound waves from start --> mvmt of fluid in cochlea. | hit pinna - vibrate tympanic ear drum - vibrate middle ear bones (MIS) - vibrate oval window - mvmt fluid in cochlea
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| What happens once cochlea fluid moved? | -vibration of basilar mem
-stereocili microvilli "hair" cx bend in organ of corti
-influex of K+ --> voltage positive
-Ap generated in auditory nerve
-AP relayed to brain --> hearing!
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| Why is oval window smaller than tympanic membrane? | -to increase pressure
-greater force required to transfer sound from air to perilymph
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| Semicircular canals | -sense position and mvmt of head
-balance
-3 are perpendicular to each other
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| endocrine vs. exocrine | -endocrine-release hx into env't through ducts
-exocrine-release sweat, oil, enzymes directly into body fluids
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| What do hx ABSOLUTELY need? | receptors!
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| What are 3 basic types of hormones and how do they act? | -peptide (2nd messenger)
-steroid (nuclear rx)
-tyrosine (nuclear rx)
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| Where are all peptide hx made? | -preprohx (rough ER) --> prohx (ER lumen) --> hx (Golgi)
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| Whether it be ntm or protein hx, what happens when it attaches to rx? | 1. opens ion channels
2. activates 2nd messenger
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| Is 2nd messenger ALWAYS excitatory? | no
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| Where do steroid hx come from? | adrenal cortex, gonads, placenta
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| What are major types of tyrosine derivatives? | -T3 and T4
-catecholamines from adrenal medulla
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| What kind of hx are catecholamines? | -px and act through 2nd messenger cAMP
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| What controls pituitary glands? | hypothalamus
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| What do steroid hx cause? | promotes transcription of specific genes
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| Do a.a. hx or steroid hx have longer-lasting actions? | steroid hx
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| What terminates cAMP action? | phosphodiesterase
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| What hx are ovaries under control of? | GNRH --> LH and FSH
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| Diabetes mellitus vs. diabetes insipidus | -mellitus-lack of insulin or resistance to it
-insipidus-kidneys unable to conserve water (defect in secretion of ADH)
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| Diabetics have (2) sx related to insipidus and mellitus. | 1. polyuria - increased urination
2. polydipsia - increased thirst
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| 2 types of diabetes mellitus | Type I (insulin-dependent)
-autoimmune destruction of beta cells
Type II (non-insulin dependent)
-body resists effects of insulin
-most common
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| Where is somatostatin made? What does it do? | stomach, intestines, and pancreas
-inhibit GH, insulin, and glucagon
-decrease rate of gastric emptying to extend time nutrients are absorbed
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| How is bile released into duodenum? | bile stored in gall bladder joins with common bile duct --> joins pancreatic duct --> duodenum
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| What are 3 types of cells found in pancreas? | -alpha (glucagon)
-beta (insulin)
-delta (somatostatin)
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| What else can increase plasma glucose besides insulin? | glucocorticoids, epi, and growth hx
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| Can insulin and glucagon enter cells? | NO
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| Are nx in brain affected by insulin? | NO
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| Where are adrenal glands located and what are they separated into? | -top of kidneys
-adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla
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| What does adrenal cortex secrete? | -corticosteroids (steroid hx)
-sugar, salt, sex
-glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, cortical sex hx
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| What does glucocorticoid do and what is major type? | -cortisol
-increase blood glucose conc and decrease protein synthesis
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| What does mineralocorticoid do and what is major type? | -aldosterone
-reabsorbs sodium, secretes K+ and H+ to increase BP by acting on distal convoluted tubuel
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| What does cortical sex hx do in males and females ? | -make androgen
-masculanizing effects in female
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| What does adrenal medulla make? | norepinephrine and epinephrine (catecholamines = protein hx)
--> tyrosine derivatives (D--> N --> E)
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| How does (nor)epinephrine act on internal organs and skin? On skeletal muscle? | -vasoconstrictors
-vasodilators
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| What stimulates aldosterone and increases BP via vasoconstriction? | angiotensin II
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| What does parathyroid hx do in kidney, gut, and bone? | -decrease excretion of calcium through kidney, increase secretion of phosphate
-increase absorption of calcium in gut
--> activate Vitamin D and excrete K+
-increase bone resorption and recruitment of osteoclasts
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| How does PTH act on osteoclasts? | -PTH acts on osteoblasts which produces RANKL to stimulate osteoclasts
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| PTH _____ calcium levels, calcitonin ____calcium levels | -increase and decrease
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| 2 major roles for thyroid gland | -set metabolic rate
-calcium homeostasis
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| What kind of hx are T3 and T4 and what do they do? | -nuclear hx
-increase basal metabolic rate and increase cx respiration
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| hypothyroidism and sx | -deficiency of iodine and decreased thyroid hx
-lethargy and low metabolism
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| hyperthyroidism and sx | -tumor / thyroid over-stimulation
-over activity
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| goiter | enlarged thyroid as result of hypo/hyperthyroidsm
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| calcitonin actions on kidney, gut, bone | -increase excretion of calcium from kidneys
-decreases absorption from gut
-decreases osteoclast activity and increases storage in bone
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| Main fxns of calcium | -bone
-muscle contraction
-normal blood clotting co-factor
-cell mvmt and ntm release
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| anterior pit hx are ____ and ____ | -direct-act directly by binding to rx
-tropic - bind to rx and cause release of effector hx
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| direct hx | Prolactin
Endorphins
Growth hx
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| where does growth occur in bones? | epiphyseal plates of long bones
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| Tropic Hx | FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH
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| ACTH | -adrenocorticotroic hx
-stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids via cAMP
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| What stimulates adrenal medulla? | sympathetic and parasympathetic activity
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| Hx of posterior pituitary | -oxytocin - milk ejection and uterine contractions
-ADH - aka vasopressin and causes collecting ducts of kidney to become permeable to water
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| What is ADH secreted in response to? (brain receptors) | -osmoreceptors - increased blood osmolarity
-baroreceptors - decreased blood volume
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| Prolactin is released in absence of_______ | prolactin inhibiting factor
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| What do coffee and beer affect in renal system? | block ADH --> increase urine volume
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| Why isn't prolactin produced before birth? What does lactation block? | -inhibitory effects of P and E
-menstrual cycle
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| Where do most synapses occur? | on dendrites
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| Does the cell body of a neuron have a nucleus and organelles? | YES!
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| Myelin sheath and why is it a good insulator? | -covers axon intermittently with nodes of Ranvier gaps
-fatty and has no channels
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| Schwann cells | makes myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system by wrapping around axon
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| Schwan cx vs. oligodendrocytes | -Schwann cx act in peripheral nervous system
-oligodendrocytes act in central nervous system
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| What is benefit of saltatory conduction? | speeds up AP conduction in axon
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| Axodendritic synapse | axon terminal --> dendrite
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| Axosomatic synapse | axon terminal --> cx body
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| Axoaxonic synapse | axon terminal --> axon hillock
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| Brief summary of ntm --> ATP | ntm leaves presynaptic through vesicles triggered by calcium, binds to rx, opens up channel on postsynaptic that causes change in mem potential
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| Examples of ntm | ATP, AcH, NE, dopamine
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| What are synaptic knobs? | another name for axon terminal
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| What causes fatigue in a nx? | continous synaptic activity --> depletion of ntm --> fatigue
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| Defining characteristic of AP | all or nothing!
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| What does the resting mem potential hope to achieve? | negative inside, positive outside / sodium outside, potassium inside
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| How does resting mem potential achieve negative inside? | Na/K pump and K channel leakage
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| What happens during depolarization? | sodium channels open and positive sodium rushes inside
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| What happens during repolarization? | potassium channels open and sodium channels close , potassium rushes outside
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| What happens during hyperpolarization? | K channels don't close fast enough so mem potential drops below
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| When does absolute refractory period occur? Relative refractory period? | -depolarization to cx re-establish original resting state
-after hyperpolarization till resting state re-established
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| What does "all-or-none" mean? | All AP have the same magnitude NO MATTER WHAT
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| excitatory synapse | ntm binding causes postsynaptic potential to be more positive (depolarization) --> AP
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| inhibitory synapse | ntm binding causes postsynaptic potential to be more negative (hyperpolarization)
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| Endocrine vs. exocrine | -endocrine - hx, no duct, acts long distances
-exocrine - non-hx secretion into ducts
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| What does pineal gland make? | melatonin
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| What does thyroid gland make? | thyroid hx and calcitonin
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| What does adrenal gland make? | -medulla - epi and norepi
-cortex - mineralocorticoids / glucocorticoids
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| What does dopamine inhibit? | prolactin
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| Where is aldosterone made? | adrenal cortex
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| Parathyroid vs. calcitonin | parathyroid increases bone resorption while calcitonin puts calcium back in
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| What does thymus do? | stimulates T-cx to develop
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| What is major type of glucocorticoid? | cortisol --> increase blood sugar
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| Does ovary make testosterone? | small amount
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| What is the result of diabetes? | -glucose can't enter cx --> high blood sugar
-cx starved of sugar --> f.a. metabolism
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| What does f.a. metabolism in diabetes result in? | ketone bodies --> ketoacidosis (acidic blood)
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| Why do diabetes pee more? | sugar in urine leads to more water in urine from osmosis
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| gigantism | too much GH during growing age --> well-proportioned giants
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| acromegaly | too much GH later on in life --> disproportioned growth of certain areas of body that still respond to GH
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| The major types of hx are ______ and steroids | a.a.
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| cAMP path | a.a. binds mem rx, G-px, adenylate cyclase activated, cAMP made, protein kinase cascade
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| What types of hx can go directly into cx? Where does it bind? | -steroid and thyroid hx
-binds rx in cytoplasm or nucleus
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| Phospholipid path | a.a. binds mem rx, G-px, phospholipase C activated, mem phospholipid split into DAG and IP3
-DAG triggers px kinase cascade
-IP3 releases Ca from the ER
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| What creates specificity of hx for target cx? | whether or not there are rx for hx
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| Humoral control of hx | glands directly respond to chemical levels in the blood
-parathyroid and low Ca
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| Neural control of hx | glands release hx when stimulated by nerves
-flight or fight
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| Hormonal control of hx | glands release hx when stimulated by other hx
-tropic hx
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| Sensory = __________. Motor = ___________. | -afferent to CNS
-efferent away from CNS
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| Sympathetic is ________. Parasympathetic is ______. | -flight or fight
-rest and digest
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| Examples of positive feedback. | -LH and estrogen surge
-oxytocin and contractions
-blood clotting platelets
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| What is reflex arc? | receptor - sensory nx - integration center - motor nx - effector
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| Why do reflexes bypass the brain? | creates faster response
-brain still aware of what is happening
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| monosynaptic vs. polysynaptic | -monosynaptic - no internx / direct synapse of sensory to motor
-polysynaptic - internx present
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| During knee jerk, the ____ is contracted and the ______ is relaxed. | -extensor
-flexor
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| What does the golgi tendon reflex protect? | protects muscle from heavy loads by causing muscle to relax and drop the load
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| What happens during the golgi tendon reflex? | nx from golgi tendon organ fires, motor nx inhibited, muscle relaxes, load dropped
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| What is role of spinal cord in reflex arc? | provides synapse(s) for reflex arc
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| What does efferent control refer to in reflex arc? | brain can still override spinal reflexes
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| Where in the skin are the touch, heat, and pain rx located? Pressure rx? | -close to surface near dermis-epidermis boundary
-deeper in dermis
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| Proprioreceptor | -senses position of a body part
-controlled by cerebellum
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| What do thermoreceptors detect? | A CHANGE in temperature
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| Olfaction process | chemicals enter nose, trapped in mucus, picked up by mem rx on cilia, cx depolarization
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| Taste process | Chemical dissolve in saliva, carried inside taste bud, microvilli pick up chemicals, release ntm to brain
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| What are inner ear bones? | malleus(hammer) , incus (anvil) , stapes (stirrup)
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| What is the ear drum? | tympanic membrane
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| What is vestibule in hear? | contacts oval window and continuous with semicircular canals
--> balance
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| What is main fxn of cochlea? | propagates sound pressure waves in fluid and transduces them into nerve impulses sent to brain
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| Which is more sensitive: rods or cones? | rods
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| What is importance of rhodopsin and what is it made of? | -chemical responsible for light reception
-retinal + opsin
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| Light converts ____(cis/trans) retinal --> _____(cis/trans) retinal | cis --> trans
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| What is blind spot? | Where bundle of nerves exist in back of retina that sends signal to brain
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| How does brain create 3D image? | combines 2 images from each eye (also to get rid of blind spot)
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| How many nx do the sympathetic and parasympathetic system rely on? | 2
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| Describe the nx in a sympathetic nervous system. | short preganglionic and long postganglionic
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| Describe nx in a parasympathetic n.s. | long preganglionic and short postganglionic
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| Where is oxytocin and ADH produced? | hypothalamus
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| What is aldosterone produced in response to? | low sodium or elevated potassium
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| Which division of autonomic nervous system has dominant effect on heart? | parasympathetic nervous system
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| How is the GI tract an endocrine gland? | secretes secretin, CCK, gastrin
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| How are kidneys an endocrine gland? | secrete erythropoietin to stimulate bone marrow to make RBC
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| How is heart an endocrine gland? | secretes ANP to regulate salt and water balance
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| How is thymus an endocrine gland? | secretes thymosin to regulate proper T-cx differentiation
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| Totipotent cx | any one of these cx could make complete organism
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| What is special about a morula? | has totipotent cx
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| blastula vs. blastocyst | blastocyst is mammalian blastula type
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| blastocoel | hollow, fluid-filled cavity
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| trophoblast | surrounds blastocoel and makes chorion and placenta
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| inner cx mass | makes actual organism
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| Which occurs first, determination or differentiation? | determination
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| Where is the adrenal cortex formed from? | mesoderm
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| Where is the adrenal medulla formed from? | ectoderm
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| Deuterosome vs. protosome | -deuterosome = human
-protosome = everything else
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| What does the blastopore become in deuterosomes vs. protosomes? | -deuterosome = anus
-protosome = mouth
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| What does archenteron develop into? | gut
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| What do neural crest cx form? | peripheral nervous system
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| umbilical arteries | carry deoxygenated blood away from fetus
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| umbilical veins | carry oxygeanted blood towards fetus
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| ductus venosus | -shunts 1/2 of oxygenated blood from umbilical vein to inferior vena cava
-bypass nonfxnal liver
-preferentially give oxygenated blood to brain
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| foramen ovale | connects right and left atria
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| ductus arteriosus | connects pulmonary artery --> aorta
-bypasses nonfxnal lungs
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| Why does sympathetic system produce more whole-body response? | ganglia are connected to each other
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| What are trophic hx? | stimulate other glands to secrete hx
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| When Na/K pump is blocked, what will be intracx conditions? | -increase in intracx sodium
-decrease in intracx K
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| When Na/K pump is blocked, what also is blocked? | ATP consumption
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| What are 3 major px in plasm? | albumin, gammaglobulins (antibodies, fibrinogen
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| Secondary px structure | alpha helix or beta sheet
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| What are the 2 major systems that maintain homeostasis? | endocrine and nervous system
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| What are the parts of a pancreas? | head, neck, body, tail
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| What does low Ca cause? | increases nx permeability to sodium --> hyperexcitability
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| What stimulates osteoblasts? | calcitonin
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| Small intestine: parathyroid vs. calcitonin | -parathyroid increases Ca absorption
-calcitonin decreases Ca absorption
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| How does Vit D act on intestine? | increases Ca absorption
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| What does shortage of insulin crease? | cause blood glucose level to increase and glycolysis to decrease
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| What happens if there is a decrease in rate of glycolysis in relation to ketone bodies? | -forces body to metabolize fat --> ATP
-fat metabolism = ketone bodies
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| What stimulates the release of estrogen? | LH
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| Where are gap junctions found? | heart and smooth muscle
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| What does thyroid hx stimulate? | px synthesis and activity of Na/K ATP ase
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| What does atrial natiuretic peptide do? | decrease blood volume
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| 2 characteristics of cancer | -abnormal cell growth
-abnormally high conc. of product
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| Calcitonin actions with Ca and P | 1. blocks bone resorption
2. inhibits renal absorption of Ca and P
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| Parathyroid actions with Ca and P on bone, kidney, and s. intestine | -bone = releases Ca and P
-kidney = decreases excretion of Ca, increases P
-s. intestine = increases reabsorption of Ca and P
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| Overall what does PTH do? | increases blood calcium, and decreases blood phosphate
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| What hx is in excess with someone with high sugar level and muscle wasting? | excess cortisol
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| What are the 4 hx that increase blood glucose levels? | glucagon, cortisol, GH and epi
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| facilitated diffusion | relies on a channel px to move down a concentration gradient
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| Does endocytosis depend on ATP? | yes
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| What kind of gland is the salivary? | exocrine gland
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| Which is stronger: ionic or covalent bond | ionic
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| What are the tyrosin-deriv a.a.? | thyroid hx, epi, and norepi
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| What are the steroid hx? | cortisol, aldo, progesterone, testosterone
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| Where is AcH used? | -parasympathetic NS
-neuromuscular jxns to stimulate voluntary muscles
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| What does the PNS and SNS both release? | acetylcholine at preganglionic nerve
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| Does calcitonin increase phosphate reabsorption in kidneys? | NO
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| If the Na/K pump was not working, what would be the conditions? | built up of Na inside, built up of K outside
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