ch 1-4, 16
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| psychology | scientific study of mind and behavior
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| mind | private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories and feelings
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| behavior | observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals
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| nativism | philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn (Plato)
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| dualism | how mental activity can be reconciled and coordinated with physical behavior (Descartes)
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| philosophical empiricism | philosophical view that all knowledge is acquired through experience (Aristotle
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| phrenology | now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness are localized in specific regions of the brain (Gall)
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| physiology | study of biological processes, especially in the human body
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| stimulus | sensory input from the environment
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| reaction time | amount of time taken to respond to a specific stimulus
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| consciousness | person's subjective experience of the world and the mind
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| structuralism | analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind (Tichener/ Wundt)
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| introspection | subjective observation of one's own experience
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| functionalism | study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment
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| natural selection | Charles Darwin's theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations
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| hysteria | a temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences
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| unconscious | the part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions
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| psychoanalytic theory | sigmund Freud's approach to understanding human behavior that emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts and behaviors
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| psychoanalysis | therapeutic approach that focuses on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to better understand psychological disorders
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| humanistic psychology | an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings (Rogers & Maslow)
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| behaviorism | approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior
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| response | an action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus
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| reinforcement | consequences of a behavior that determine whether it will be more likely that the behavior will occur again
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| illusions | errors of perception, memory, or judgment in which subjective experience differs from objective reality
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| Gestalt psychology | a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
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| cognitive psychology | scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory and reasoning
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| behavioral neuroscience | approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes
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| cognitive neuroscience | field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity
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| evolutionary psychology | psychological approach that explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities that are preserved over time by natural selection
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| social psychology | a subfield of psychology that studies the causes and consequences of interpersonal behavior
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| cultural psychology | study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members
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| ______ holds that culture makes little difference for most psychological phenomena, whereas _____________ holds that psychological phenomena vary a lot from culture to culture. | absolutism; relativism
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| Psychology is best defined as: | the scientific study of mind and behavior.
observable actions of humans and non-human animals.
the electrical and chemical activity of our brains.the welfare and reproduction of organisms.
None of the above.
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| What is the philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn? | nativism
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| Which of the following did NOT contribute to the rise of cognitive psychology? | radar operators
computer technology
discovery of errors in perception
Piagests study of children
Chomsky's observations of children producing novel sentences
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| Which early scientist demonstrated that mental processes do not occur instantaneously? | Helmholtz
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| Rats learn to associate nausea with the smell of food more easily than they learn to associate nausea with a sound or a light. Why? | A rat's ancestors' learning experiences determine a rat's ability to learn new
associations.
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| Descartes suggested that the mind and the body interact through the: | pineal gland
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| Clinical psychologists differ from psychiatrists in that clinical psychologists: | do not assess or treat people with psychological problems.
never do research.
do not have a degree beyond a bachelor's degree.
only work in university settings.
do not have MDs (medical degrees) and do not prescribe medication.
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| Which of the following is NOT true of psychoanalytic theory? | continues to be dominant today
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| Darwin's theory of natural selection informed which approach to psychology? | functionalism
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| Flourens and Broca conducted research that demonstrated a connection between | mind and the brain
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| What was the subject of the famous experiment conducted by Helmholtz | reaction time
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| Wundt is creditied with | founding of psychology as a scientific discipline
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| Wundt and students sought to analyze the basic elements that constitute the mind, an approach called | structuralism
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| William James and _________ helped establish functionalism as a major school of psychological thought in North America | G. Stanley Hall
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| the functional approach to psychology was inspired by | Darwin's Natural Selection
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| To understand human behavior, French physicians Jean-Martin Charcot and Pierre Janet studied people | with psychological disorders
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| Building on the work of charcot and Janet, Sigmund Freud developed | psychoanalytic theory
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| Behaviorism involves the study of | observable actions and responses
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| The experiments of Ivan Pavlov and Watson centered on | stimulus and response
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| Who developed the concept of reinforcement | B.F.Skinner
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| The study of mental processes such as perception and memory | cognitive psychology
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| use of scanning techniques to observe the brain in action and to see which parts are involved in which operations helped the development of | cognitive neuroscience
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| central to evolutionary psychology is the ___ function that minds and brains serve | adaptive
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| social psychology most differs from other psychological approaches in its emphasis on | human interaction
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| common sense - on human behavior | influenced by upbringing, education, religion, ideology...
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| empiricism | belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation
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| scientific method | set of principles about the appropriate relationship between ideas and evidence (al-Haytham)
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| theory | hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon
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| hypothesis | falsifiable prediction made by a theory
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| empirical method | set of rules and techniques for observation
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| operational definition | description of a property in concrete, measurable terms
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| measure | device that can detect the condition to which an operational definition refers
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| electromyograph (EMG) | device that measures muscle contractions under the surface of a person's skin
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| validity | extent to which a measurement and a property are conceptually related
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| reliability | tendency for a measure to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing; necessary but not sufficient for validity
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| power | the ability of a measure to detect the concrete conditions specified in the operational definition
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| demand characteristics | those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think they should
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| naturalisitic observation | a technique for gathering scientific info by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments
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| double-blind | when both observer and observee don't know true purpose of experiment
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| frequency distribution | graphical representation of measurements arranged by the number of times each measurement was made
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| normal distribution | mathematically defined frequency distribution in which most measurements are concentrated around the middle
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| mode | value of the most frequently observed measurement
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| mean | average value of all the measurements
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| median | value that is "in the middle" i.e. greater than or equal to half the measurements and less than or equal to half the measurements
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| range | value of the largest measurement in a frequency distribution minus the value of the smallest measurement
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| standard deviation | statistic that describes the averge difference between the measurements in a frequency distribution and the mean of that distribution
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| variable | property whose value can vary across individuals or over time
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| correlation | two variables are said to "be correlated" when variations in the value of one variabl are sychronized with variations in te value of the other
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| correlation coefficient | measure of the direction and strength of a correlation which is signified by the letter r
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| natural correlation | correlation observed in the world around us
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| third-variable correlation | fact that two variables are correlated only because each is causally related to a third variable
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| matched samples | technique whereby the participants in two groups are identical in terms of a third varialbe
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| matched pairs | technique whereby each participant is identical to one other participant in terms of a third variable
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| third-variable problem | fact that a causal relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of third-variable correlation
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| experiment | technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables
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| manipulation | creation of an artificial pattern of variation in a variable in order to determine its causal powers
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| independent variable | variable that is manipulated in an experiment
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| experimental group | group of people who are treated in a particular way, as compared to the control group, in an experiment
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| control group | group of people who are not treated in the particular way that the experimental group is treated in an experiment
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| dependent variable | the variable that is measured in a study
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| self-selection | problem that occurs when anything about a person determines whether he or she will be included in the experimental or control group
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| random assignment | procedure that used a random event to assign people to the experimental or control group
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| internal validity | characteristic of an experiment that establishes the causal relationship between variables
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| external validity | property of an experiment in which the varialbes have been operationally defined in a normal, typical or realistic way
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| population | complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured
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| sample | partial collection of people drawn from a population
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| case method | method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual
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| random sampling | technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
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| informed consent | written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all risks that participation may entail
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| debriefing | verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study
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| when a measure tends to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing it is said to have: | reliability
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| which research method establishes a causal relationship between two variables | an experiment
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| a ______ occurs when a variable (z) causually influences the relationship between two other varialbles (a and b) | third-variable correlation
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| what is an operational definition | description of property in concrete, measurable terms
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| the set of principles about the appropriate relationship between ideas and evidence: | the scientific methodddddd
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| reasons people are hard to study | complez, variable, reactive
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| belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation is | empiricism
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| aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think they should are called | demand characteristics
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| characteristic of an experiment that allows conclusions about causal relationships to be drawn is called | internal validity
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| experiment that operationally defines variables in a realistic way is said to be | externally valid
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| Key to true experiment | random assignment!!!!
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| why wouldn't we random assign? | impossible, implausable, unethical
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| face validity | does test appear to measure what is purports to measure
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| criterion validity | does measurement predict some criterion of interest
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| construct validity | are we really measuring the theoretical construct we think we are (i.e. know answering and their correlated meanings)
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| neurons | cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks
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| cell body | part of a neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive
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| dendrite | part of a neuron that receives info from other neurons and relays it to the cell body
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| axon | part of a neuron that transmits info to other neurons, muscles, or glands
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| myelin sheath | an insulating layer of fatter material
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| glial cells | support cells found in the nervous system
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| synapse | junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another
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| sensory neurons | neurons that receive info from the external world and convey this info to the brain via the spinal cord
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| motor neurons | neruons that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement
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| interneurons | neurons that connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or other interneurons
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| resting potential | difference in electric charge between inside and outside of a neron's cell membrane
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| action potential | electric signal that is conducted along a neuron's axon to a synapse
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| refractory period | time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated
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| How can demand characteristics be avoided? | by observing people in their natural environments
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| Which of the following is an operational definition of depression? | score on a depression symptom scale
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| What are the three basic principles described in the Belmont Report? | respect for persons, beneficence, and justice
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| When psychologists report the results of their research, they are required to do all of the following except... | only report results that are statistically significant
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| A graduate student is examining the effects of 2 antipsychotics (Zyprexa, and Risperdol) on the weight gain of people with schizophrenia. In this experiment… | independent- antipsychotic dependent- weight gain
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| All of the following are part of the psychologist's code of ethics | risk-benefit analysis, protection from harm, informed consent, freedom from coercion
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| experiment debriefing entails | researcher explaining nature and purpose of study
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| A(n) ________ is a testable prediction that is based on a(n) __________. | hypothesis, theory
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| terminal buttons | knoblike structures that branch out from an axon
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| neurontransmitters | chemicals that transmit info across the synapse to a receiving neruon's dendrites
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| receptors | parts of the cell membrane that receive the nerotransmitter and initiate or prevent a new electric signal
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| acetylcholine | a neurotransmitter involved in a number of functions, including voluntary motor control
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| dopamine | neurotransmitter regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal
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| glutamate | major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in info transmission throughout the brain
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| GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) | primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
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| norepinephrine | neurontransmitter that influences mood and arousal
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| serotonin | neurotransmitter that is involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating and aggressive behavior
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| endorphins | chemicals that act within the pain pathways and emotion centers of the brain
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| agonists | drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter
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| antagonists | drugs that block the function of a neurotranmitter
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| nervous system | interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical info throughout the body
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| CNS | part of nervous system that is composed of the brain and spinal cord
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| PNS | part of nervous system that connects the CNS to the body's organs and muscles
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| somatic nervous system | set of nerves that conveys info into and out of the CNS
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| autonomic nervous system (ANS) | set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs and glands
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| sympathetic nervous system | set of nerves that prepares the body for action in threatening situations
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| parasympathetic nervous system | set of nerves that helps the body return to a normal resting state
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| spinal reflexes | simple pathways in teh nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions
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| hindbrain | area of the brain that coordinates info coming into and out of the spinal cord
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| medulla | an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration
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| reticular formation | a brain structure that regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal
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| cerebellum | a large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills
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| pons | brain strucutre that relays info from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
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| tectum | part of the midbrain that orients an organism in the environment
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| tegmentum | part of the midbrain that is involved in movement and arousal
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| cerebral cortex | outermost layer of the brain, visible to the naked eye and divided into two hemispheres
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| subcortical structures | areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the very center of the brain
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| limbic system | group of forebrain structures including the ypothalamus, the amygdala, and the hippocampus, which are involved in motivation, emotion, learning and memory
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| thalamus | subcortical structure that relays and filters info from the senses and transmits the info to the cerebral cortex
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| hypothalamus | subcorical structure that regulates body temp, hunger, thirst and sexual behavior
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| pituitary gland | "master gland" of the body's hormone-producing system, which releases hormones that direct the functons of many other glands in the body
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| hippocampus | structure critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex
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| amygdala | part of the limbic system that plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories
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| basal ganglia | set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements
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| corpus callosum | thick band of nerve fibers that connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of info across the hemispheres
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| occipital lobe | region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual info
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| parital lobe | region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing info about touch
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| temporal lobe | region of the cerebral cotex responsible for hearing and language
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| frontal lobe | region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory and judgement
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| association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to info registered in the cortex
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| gene | unit of hereditary transmission
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| chromosomes | strand of DNA wound around each other in a double-helix configuration
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| heritability | measure of the variability of behavioral traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors
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| electroencephalograph (EEG) | device used to record electrical activity in the brain
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| what part of hindbrain coordinates fine motor skills | cerebellum
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| part of brain involved in movement and arousal | midbrain
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| the ___ regulates body temp, hunger, thirst and sexual behavior | hypothalamus
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| what explains benefits of cardiovascular exercise on aspects of brain function and cognitive performance | neuron plasticity
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| during course of embryonic brain growth the ___ undergoes the greatest development | cerebral cortex
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| first true central nervous system appeared in | flatworms!
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| genes set the ___ in populations within a given environment | range of variation
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| identifying brain areas that are involved in specific types of motor, cognitive, or emotional processing is best achieved through __ | brain imaging
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| The set of nerves that conveys information into and out of the central nervous system is called the… | somatic nervous system
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| Individuals with autism struggle with social interactions and communication skills. Recent evidence suggests that these difficulties can be attributed to a deficiency in… | mirror neurons
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| genetics plays a major role in | personality traits, psychological disorders, particular behaviors
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| metal rod through frontol lobe? | Phineas Gage, became irritable and irresponsible compared to quiet, man he was before accident. therefore conclusion that frontol lobe is involved with emotion regulation and decision making
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| runner's high comes from | endorphins
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| part of brain the performs advanced tasks like planning and judging | forebrain
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| the __ nervous system prepares body for action while the __ nercous system helps body return to normal state | sympathetic; parasympathetic
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| stressors | specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being
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| stress | the physical and psychological response to internal or external stressors
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| health psychology | subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physcial illness and the maintenance of health
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| chronic stressor | a source of stress that occurs continuously or repeatedly
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| fight-or-flight response | emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action
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| general adaptation syndrome (GAS) | a three-stage physiological response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered
1. alarm phase- body responds to threat
2. resistance phase- body tries to cope
3. exhaustion phase- body's resistance collapses
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| immune system | complex response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances
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| lymphocytes | white blood cells that produce antibodies that fight infection
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| type A behavior pattern | the tendency toward easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of time urgency and competitive strivings
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| post-traumatic stress disorder | disorder characterized by chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance of things that call the traumatic event to mind
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| burnout | state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion created by long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation
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| repressive coping | avoiding situations or thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint
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| rational coping | facing a stressor and working to overcome it
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| reframing | finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat
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| stress inoculation training (SIT) | therapy that helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation
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| relaxation therapy | technique for reducing tension by consciously relaxing muscles of the body
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| relaxation response | condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure
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| biofeedback | use of an external monitoring device to obtain info about a bodily function and possible gain control over that function
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| social support | aid gained through interacting with others
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| psychosomatic illness | an interaction between mind and body that can produce illness
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| somatoform disorders | set of psychological disorders in which the person displays physical symptoms not fully explained by a general medical condition
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| hypochondriasis | a psychological disorder in which a person is preoccupied with minor symptoms and develops an exaggerated belief that the symptoms signify a life=threatening illness
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| somatization disorder | psychological disorder involving combinations of multiple physical complaints with no medical explanation
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| conversion disorder | disorder characterized by apparently debilitating physical symptoms that appear to be voluntary-but that the person experiences as involuntary
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| sick role | socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness
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| self-regulation | exercise of volutary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards
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| how to measure sympathetic NS activity | galvanic skin response (measuring electrical activity/sweat), heart rate & blood pressure
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| HPA axis? | hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal
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| corisol | increases blood sugar level& suppresses immune system
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| catecholamines | epinephrine& norepinephrine, increases activity in sympathetic and decreases parasympathetic
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| what somatoform disorder is characterized by apparently debilitating physical symptoms that appear to be voluntary | conversion diorder
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| faking an illness is a violation of | the sick role
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| what brain structure might be an indicator to a susceptability to PTSD? | hippocampus
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| biofeedback | moderately sucessful in treating brain-wave abnormalties, no control over stress-induced health problems, useful alternative to other relaxational techniques, monitors bodily functions people are not usually aware of
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| unique presence of ___ in females may explain why females respond to stress by "tending-and-befriending" others | oxytocin
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| in fMRI studies the __ and __ show greater activation in high-pain-sensitive individuals than in low-pain-sensitive individuals | anterior cingulate cortex, primary somatosensory areas
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| a ___ is a socially recognized set of risks and obligations linked to illness | sick role
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| synesthesia | perceptual experience of one sense that is evoked by another sense
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| sensation | simple stiumlation of a sense organ
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| perception | organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation
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| transduction | takes place when many sensors in the body convert physical signals from the environment into encoded neural signals sent to the central nervous system
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| psychophysics | methods that measure the strength of a stimulus and the observer's sensitivity to that stimulus
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| absolute threshold | minimal intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus
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| just noticeable difference (JND) | minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected
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| weber's law | just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity
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| signal detection theory | observation that the response to a stimulus depends both on a person's sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and on a person's response criterion
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| sensory adaptation | sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as an organism adapts to current conditions
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| visual activity | ability to see fine detail
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| retina | light-sensitive tissue lining the back of the eyeball
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| accommodation | process by which the eye maintains a clear image on the retina
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| cones | photoreceptors that detect color, operate under normal daylight conditions, and allow us to focus on fine detail
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| rods | photoreceptors that become active under low-light conditions for night vision
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| fovea | area of the retina where vision is the clearest and there are no rods at all
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| blind spot | location in the visual field that produces no sensation on the retina because the corresponding area of the retina contains netiher rods nor cones and therefore has no mechanism to sense light
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| receptive field | the region of the sensory surface that, when stimulated, causes a change in the firing rate of that neuron
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| trichromatic color representation | pattern of responding across the three types of cones that provides a unique code for each color
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| color-opponent system | pairs of visual neurons that work in opposition
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| area V1 | part of the occipital lobe that contains the primary visual cortex
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| visual-form agnosia | inability to recognize objects by sight
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| binding problem | how features are linked together so that we see unified objects in our visual world rather than free-floating or miscombined features
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| illusory conjunction | perceptual mistake where features from multiple objects are incorrectly combined
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| feature integration theory | idea that focused attention is not required to detect the individual features that comprise a stimulus but is required to bind those individual features together
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| perceptual constancy | perceptual principle stating that even as aspects of sensory signals change, perception remains consistent
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| template | mental representation that cna be directly compared to a viewed shape in the retinal image
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| monocular depth cues | aspects of a scene that yield info about depth when viewed with only one eye
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| binocular disparity | difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides info about depth
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| apparent motion | perception of movement as a result of alternating sinals appearing in rapid succession in different locations
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| change blindness | when people fail to detect changes to the visual details of a scene
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| inattentional blindness | failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention
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| rule of __ states that edges and contours with similar orientation are grouped together perceptually | continuity
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| place code | the cochlea encoding different frequencies at different locations along the basilar membrane
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| why is sense of tast evolutionary advantage | chemical sense of taste allows us to identify foods that are bad for us and therefore avoid them
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| all senses rely on... | TRANSDUCTION! and the brain...
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| process of accommodation allows us to | focus on objects at different distances
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| binocular disparity provides info on | depth
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| primary auditory cortex located in... | temporal lobe
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