Flight and Flightlessness
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| General types of wings: | High aspect ratio
High speed
Elliptical
High lift
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| Example of bird with high aspect ratio wings. | Shearwater
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| Example of bird with high speed wings. | Swallow
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| Example of bird with elliptical wings. | Pheasant
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| Example of bird with high lift wings. | Rough-legged hawk
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| what are the adaptations of foot propelled diving birds? | Lobing rather than webbing.
Fusiform shaped leg musculature incorporated into the body mass to reduce drag.
Cnemial crest for mechanical advantage of extending leg.
Extension of tibia in loons, of kneecap in hesperonithiforms, from both in grebes.
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| Why does flightlessness evolve primarily on islands? | Islands free from predators, so flight is less important for escaping predation.
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| Wings used for submarine flight only | Stage C: Penguins and Great Auk
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| Wings used for both submarine and aerial flight | Stage B: Diving-petrels and Razorbill
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| Wings used for aerial flight only | Stage A: Petrels and Gulls
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| The only flightless seabird | Galapagos flightless cormorant
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| The only flightless pigeon | Island of Mauritius dodo
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| The only flightless parrot | New Zealand kakapo
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| Flightless geese from Hawaii | Thambetochen chauliodous
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| only flightless ibis | flightless Hawaiian ibis
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| Changes occurring with flightlessness: | Lack of keel in sternum.
Acute angle in pectoral girdle shortens the distance through which dorsal elevator muscles act.
No front limb.
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| Flightlessness evolves through what? | Neoteny
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| Adaptation of toes for terrestrial locomotion includes toe reduction in what? | fast runners
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| Used for climbing, scratching, and grasping prey. | toes
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| Five birds that has webbing: | Ciconiiform seabirds
Anseriform waterfowl
Procellariiform seabirds
Charadriiform birds
Gaviiform loons
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| Development of the sternum in the flying rail Porphyrula martinica shows how the carina in its early stages corresponds to the shape of the carina in these two different species of flightless rails. | Gallirallus australis and Gallirallus owstoni.
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| Its sternum is entirely cartilaginous but has nearly the same conformation as Gallirallus australis. | P. martinica
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| A flightless New Zealand wood rail about the size of a small chicken. | weka, Gallirallus australis
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| A gruiform from New Caledonia. | Flightless kagu, Rhynochetos jubatus
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| Nearly flightless, live in Madagascar, climb to nests, reduced clavicles and powderdown, unique gruiformes. | mesites, Mesoenas variegata
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| Soaring flight by exploiting columns of warm air. | thermal soaring
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| soaring flight by using air deflected upward from terrestrial ridge of ocean wave. | slope soaring
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| fast flyers, with huge hands, only 6 or 7 secondaries, ball and socket glenoid | hummingbirds
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| have powered flight as well as soaring, 3 segments about equal in length | frigatebirds
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| soar, forearm is longest segment, as many as 32 secondaries | albatross
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| from up position, wing moves forward and down. arm is rotated on upstroke so that wing comes alongside body. | slow braking flight
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| In general, wing loading increases with what? | body size
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| highest wing loading recorded is found in a sea bird that swims and dives. | thick-billed murre
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| primary flight feathers generate what? | thrust
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| secondary flight feathers generate what? | lift
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| asymmetric vaning of primary flight feathers causes the feather to | twist during downward stroke.
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| asymmetric vaning enables air to flow over the twisted feather at the appropriate angle of attack and the resultant force can be | partitioned into forward thrust, vertical lift, and some backward drag.
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| with alula extended, air flows above, below, and through the wing, enabling lift to generated at | slower airspeeds.
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| At this angle of attack, air no longer travels smoothly over the upper surface of the airfoil. some is forced back down onto the surface reducing it. | Stalling
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| Stalling can be prevented at a particular angle of attack by | increasing airspeed.
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| generates resultant force that can be partitioned into lift and drag. | Airfoil
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dominatrix
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