Economics
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| giving & receiving of goods of nearly equal value with a clear obligation of return gift within a specified time limit | balanced reciprocity
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| productive resources that are used with primary goal of increasing their owner’s financial wealth | capital
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| economic system in which people work for wages, land & capital goods are privately owned, & capital is invested for profit | capitalism
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| ritual system common in Cent./S. America in which wealthy people are required to hold a series of costly ceremonial offices | cargo system
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| norms governing production, distribution, & consumption of goods & services within a society | economic system
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| study of the ways in which & choices people make combine to determine how their society uses its scarce resources to produce & distribute goods/services | economics
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| institution composed of kin &/or non-kin that is organized primarily for financial gain | firm
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| giving and receiving goods with no immediate or specific return expected | generalized reciprocity
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| group of people united by kinship or other links who share a residence & organize production, consumption, & distribution among themselves | household
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| pattern of exchange among trading partners in the S. Pacific islands | Kula ring
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| practice, value, or form of social organization that evens out wealth within a society | leveling mechanism
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| economic system in which goods & services are bought & sold at a money price determined primarily by forces of supply/demand | market exchange
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| exchange conducted for purpose of material advantage & desire to get something for nothing | negative reciprocity
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| form of redistribution involving competitive feasting practiced among NW Coast Native Americans | potlatch
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| material goods, natural resources/info used to create other goods/info | productive resources
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| mutual give & take among people of equal status | reciprocity
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| exchange in which goods are collected then distributed to members of a group | redistribution
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| all human societies have __ __ | economic systems
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| sum of choices people make regarding these areas of their lives | economic aspect of culture
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| choices based on economic aspect of culture are __ by our cultures, traditions, & technologies | constrained
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| set boundaries within which choices about production, distribution, & consumption of goods/services are made | environments
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| every society must have a(n) __ system | economic
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| economics deals w/things & __ of things to people & people to one another in process of producing, distributing, & consuming goods | relationship
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| one aspect of relationship is that __ defines or shapes ends sought by individuals & __ of achieving those ends | culture; means
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| society & economy are __ | interdependent
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| families tend to have as many children as possible; lrg families can cultivate more land & wealthier than small families; leaders acquire political power & social prestige from wealth & numerous relations | southern Mali
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| difficult to separate the economic system from | rest of the culture
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| economics embedded in total __ process & __ pattern | social; cultural
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| few groups are organized solely for purpose of production; economic activities are (1) aspect of what they do; production carried out by families, kinship groups, or local communities | nonindustrial & kin-based societies
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| for nonindustrial & kin-based societies distribution, exchange, & consumption of goods is embedded in __ that have __ & __ purposes as well as economic ones | relationships; social; political
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| __ __ of economies developed in Western market economy | academic discipline
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| fundamental assumption of Western microeconomic theory | idea of scarcity
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| economists assume that human __ are unlimited but means for __ them are not | wants; achieving
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| assume that individuals & org. will make choices on best way to apply limited means to unlimited desires in way they believe will provide them with greatest benefit | economists
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| some scholars equate benefit with material | well-being & profit
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| notion of __ __ does not completely explain economic behavior | financial profit
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| economic choices are based on some __ of benefit, not necessarily __ to human profit | calculation; reducible
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| people make rational choices based on their __ & __ about the future | needs; guesses
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| cultures, values, & institutions provide the __ within which economic choices are made | framework
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| live in area of Tanzania w/abundance of animal/vegetable food; considerable leisure time but do not attempt to increase wealth | Hazda
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| only one of the ends towards which people expend effort | leisure time
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| Western society __ primarily ties to increased consumption & display of goods/services | prestige
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| CEO of Microsoft & head of world's largest charitable foundation | Bill Gates
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| anthropologists must analyze broad __ & __ contexts within which people make decision | institutional; social
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| anthropologists must __ & __ factors that motivate individual decision making | determine; evaluate
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| all societies must engage in __ , acquire __, & have some system through which __ to use such resources are allocated | production; resources; rights
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| people must be __ in specific ways to use resources in production of goods & services | organized
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| each society has a system of __ & a distinct style & __ of consumption | distribution; pattern
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| productive resources are the things that members of a society need to | participate in the economy
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| access the the knowledge that allows one to make & use tools | plays important role in all societies
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| access to knowledge plays critical role in modern American society seen in strong relationship between | university degrees & income
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| US Dept Educ. 2006 American's age 25-34 w/BS degree earned __ more than those w/associate's degree & __ more than those w/high school diploma | 28%; 50%
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| important point of contrast between economic systems is extent to which individuals & groups have | access to productive resources
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| __ access to resources develops as population & social complexity increase | differential
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| only 3% of student's at America's most selective universities come from households in | lowest 25% of income scale
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| only 10% of student's at America's most selective universities come from households in | lowest 50% of income scale
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| plays critical role in determining access to knowledge & access to such knowledge plays critical role in future with wealth & social position | family wealth
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| have limited number of productive resources, & most everyone has access to them | small-scale economies
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| have great many resources but access to them is limited | large-scale economies
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| weapons used in hunting animals & tools used in gathering plants & knowledge to make/use these are productive resources in | foraging societies
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| men of Hazda spend much time | gambling
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| men of Hazda never share/gamble their bow, bird's arrows, & leather bag because they are | essential for survival
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| land & water are the most __ __ for foragers | critical resources
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| hunting ground in foraging societies are not __ __ because __ __ have an adaptive value | exclusively owned; flexible boundaries
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| foraging ranges can be adjusted as availability of resources changes in particular area | flexible boundaries
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| abundance & predictability of resources also affect __ __ of foragers | territorial boundaries
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| each camp had core area of circle w/water hole at center & radius of about 6 miles; territories associated w/long-standing residents spoken of as owners & permission needed to use land's resources | Ju/'hoansi
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| require freedom of movement as condition of success in their search for food & for dealing w/social conflict | hunters & gatherers
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| if land were individually or communally defended against outsider, freedom of movement for foragers societies would be | severely limited
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| most critical resources are livestock & land; within camps, members share equal access to pastures | pastoralists
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| pastoralists' access to grasslands/water is gained through | membership in kin groups
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| in pastoralists' camps __ __ __ rather than ownership is important | right of access
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| pastoralists' animals are __ by individual families | owned
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| pastoralists consider animals as __ in their own right; prosperity & family status is determined by the numbers | wealth
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| established to access land in villages of agricultural peoples through which the pastoralists' move | contracts accessing land
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| contracts accessing land must be __ each year | renewed
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| contracts accessing land must specify __ for the pasture | rent
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| contracts accessing land must specify __ of the area | borders
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| contracts accessing land must specify __ by which area must be __ | date; vacated
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| yak-herders, NW Tibet; pastoralists; Buddhist monasteries granted rights to families to use pastures in return for tax payments; reviewed each 3rd yr | Drokba
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| land tends to be communally owned by extended kin group; rights to piece of land may be given to households or individuals | horticulture societies
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| swidden farmers in Nigeria; no individual owns land/has rights to it; land vested in kinship groups & allocated to individuals by leaders of groups | Ibo
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| Ibo may not dispose of land at will it is considered __ & may not be sold | inalienable
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| Horticulturalists' rights to cleared & productive land & products are vested in those who work it, most often | domestic group or household
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| highlands of Chiapas, Mexico individuals may farm any piece of unused land; retain rights to cleared land & likely to reuse; migration from the area may lose rights to cleared land but family retains ownership of fruit trees planted on it | Lacandon Maya
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| if Lacandon Maya man dies after investing time/labor clearing & planting land __ & __ retain rights to use land | wife; children
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| in horticulture societies, where population density is low or large areas of land are available for cultivation, rights to land are very | loosely held
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| horticulture group w/extensive lands in Peru there is little exclusive territory | Machiguenga
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| horticulture group Papua New Guinea, specific geographical conditions limit amount of available land or population pressures increase land shortages dealt w/primarily by warfare aimed at driving smaller, weaker groups off their land & annexing it | Enga
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| agriculture comes to dominate __ & __ complex societies | politically; technologically
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| capital is the __ __ of economic organization in capitalist societies | principle form
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| under conditions of __ __ material & labor investment in land becomes substantial | intensive cultivation
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| may grow out of population pressures that produce land scarcity & lead to intensified methods of agriculture | individual land ownership
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| creates conflict as people begin to grumble about not receiving their fair share | communal control of land
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| found that individual ownership of land was correlated w/high population density & intensive cultivation in a study of land rights in New Guinea highlands | Brown & Podelefsky
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| rural village in Bangladesh showed that 48% of families were __ __; had to rent land from larger land owners or work for others | functionally landless
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| individual/family has right to piece of land, & pass land to descendants but cannot be sold/traded in a peasant society | usufruct right
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| in societies w/peasantry __ rather than __ are able to claim rights to most of a land's surplus, enjoying higher levels of consumption & standards of living | landowners; cultivators
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| agriculture in peasant societies tends to be associated w/__ __ characterized by ruling landowning class & with occupational specialization | political organization
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| household or some extended kin group is basic unit of production & consumption | small-scale preindustrial & peasant societies
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| a household is a(n) | economic unit
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| goals are often social or religious rather than monetary; labor is not commodity bought/sold at market; labor important aspect of membership in a social group | households & kin groups
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| labor in household & kin groups provides __ & sense of __ & meaning | respect; identity
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| example of relationship between work & identity | gendered division of labor
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| sexual division of labor is __ | biological
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| caring for infants is almost always primary female role & usually central to | female identity
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| weaving baskets basic to female identity; newborn girls presented w/tools for weaving, & weaving equipment placed w/women when they die | Aztec Mexico
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| weaving considered male task, part of male identity | W African societies
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| an individual's self-image & social status is bound up w/work | Pamela Crespin
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| May 2009 US government reported __ of workforce were unemployed | 9.4%
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| firm does not __ __ for use of its members; items are sold for profit | produce goods
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| individuals tied to firms their labor is a(n) | commodity
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| households cannot easily __ or __ as economy fluctuates | expand; contract
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| __ production & distribution systems tend not to develop under household systems | large-scale
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| firms are geared towards economic growth, decision making __ __ by financial gain | motivated primarily
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| firm's goal is to find mix of __ & __ that will most increase firm's financial value to it's owners | capital; labor
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| firms & households are not __ __ | mutually exclusive
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| firms may be controlled by __ or __ group of families | single; small
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| firms often use the vocabulary of __ & __ to support their goals | family; team
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| firms from supermarket chains to hospitals & airlines promote themselves as communities | Casey
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| among forgers & horticulturalists characteristic division of labor is not by __ but by age & __ | job; sex
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| in society becomes more specialized & complex as population increases & agricultural production intensifies | division of labor
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| spreads throughout society as individuals are able to exchange their services or products they produce for food & wealth | occupational specialization
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| likely to include soldiers, governments officials, & members of priesthood as well as artisans, craftsmen, & merchants in forging & horticulturalist | specialists
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| contemporary India only people belonging to particular hereditary kinship groups can perform certain services or produce certain kinds of goods | castes
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| 19th century American workers associated __ with skilled labor, independence, & decision-making power at work | masculinity
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| practices sought to redefine masculinity associating it with working hard-in company of other men in a useful product and being well paid for it rather than skilled independence | Ford Motors
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| one of fundamental bases of culture | exchange of goods
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| theorized that societies were held together by patterns of giving & receiving | Marcel Mauss
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| three main patterns of exchange | reciprocity, redistribution, market
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| 3 types of reciprocity can be distinguished from one another by degree of __ __ between exchanging partners | social distance
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| generalized reciprocity is usually carries out among __ __ & is common in foraging bands | close kin
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| without any thought of economic or other self-interest | ideally altruistic
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| generalized reciprocity is recognized in Western culture as it exists between | parents & children
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| generalized reciprocity involving food is an important __ __ among foraging people | social mechanism
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| horticultural group in Brazil, distribution of meat gives a man prestige & opportunity to display culture's most valued trait of generosity | Pacaa Nova
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| balanced reciprocity often dominant form of exchange among __ __ without market economies | nonindustrialized people
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| balanced reciprocity occurs among individuals & groups characterized by production strategies from __ to __ | pastoralism; industrialism
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| goal of balanced reciprocity is not to gain __ over gifting partner | advantage
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| __ __ to give, accept, & return is at heart of balanced reciprocity | social obligation
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| balanced reciprocity is most typical of __ __ among nonindustrialized people without market economies | trading relations
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| notes the greater risk of economic loss, betrayal of confidence, or in fair dealing the important such personalized relations are | Plattner
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| analysis of Kula Ring | Malinowski
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| long necklaces of red shells always traded in clockwise direction | soulava
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| bracelets of white shell always traded in counter clockwise direction | mwali
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| it is morally wrong to cheat a(n) __ in a tribal or peasant society | insider
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| there is every advantage to gain by cheating a(n) __ in a tribal or peasant society | outsider
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| studied Navajo in 1940-50s; deceive when trading w/outsider in morally accepted practice; witchcraft tech. are permissible in trade w/member of foreign tribe | Clyde Kluckhohn
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| Chinese were repeatedly forced to purchase peace from the nomads | Mongols
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| redistribution gives out to the group in a(n) | new pattern
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| pooled resources are reallocated among family members in | household food sharing
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| redistribution is achieved through taxation | states societies
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| redistribution can be important in __ societies where political organizations include bigmen, self-made leaders, who gain power/authority through personal achievement | horticultural
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| potlatches held to honor/validate rank of chiefs & other nobles, usually in connection w/births, deaths, & marriages | Kwakiutl & Tlingit
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| saw potlatches as waste & evidence of native irrationality; outlawed 1885-1951 | Canadian government
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| report that Tanacross & Haida people consider potlatch central symbol of cooperation & respect that separates natives from non-native peoples | Simeone & Stearns
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| report that rivalrous, competitive feasting is found among many people throughout Pacific Islands | Rosman & Rubel
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| type of large feast in Papua New Guinea; men wish to gain prestige accumulate diverse wealth & redistribute to those who attend ceremony | Moka
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| village of Amatenango Chiapas Mexico; production by household & inheritance are leveling mechanisms | Manning Nash
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| ritual position filled by younger man | alferez
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| religious office; involves substantial purchases & donations | cargo
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| in economics, __ __ is making choices in ways believed to provide the greatest benefit | economizing behavior
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| idea that human beings have an instinct to defend a particular piece of territory is a notion that has some popular appeal, but little support from | ethnographic data
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| distinguishing characteristic of land ownership in current capitalist societies is | land is commonly owned by individuals
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| Peasants generally __ a wealthy, landowning class | support
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| capitalism is an economic system that has become __ in the last 300 years | predominant
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