Making A Living
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| form of food production in which fields are in permanent cultivation using plows, animals, & techniques of soil & water control | agriculture
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| yield per person per hour of labor invested | efficiency
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| food-getting strategy that does not involve food production/domestication of animals & that involves no conscious effort to alter environment | foraging (hunting and gathering)
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| integration of resources, labor, & capital into a global network | globalization
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| production of plants using a simple, non-mechanized technology; fields are not used continuously | horticulture
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| replacement of human & animal energy by machines in the process of production of food & other goods | industrialism
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| production technology that adapts mechanized manufacturing processes in production, processing, & distribution of food | industrialized agriculture
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| form of pastoralism in which the whole social group (men, women, children) & their animals move in search of pasture | nomadic pastoralism
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| food-getting strategy that depends on care of domesticated herd animals | pastoralism
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| society that reckons descent through male line | patrilineal
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| rural cultivators who produce for subsistence of their households but are also integrated into larger, complex state societies | peasants
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| number of people inhabiting a given area of land | population density
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| yield per person per unit of land | productivity
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| tropical woodland characterized by high rainfall & dense canopy of broad-leaved evergreen trees | rain forest
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| settled, living in one place | sedentary
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| way a society transforms environmental resources into food | subsistence strategy
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| form of cultivation in which a field is cleared by felling the trees & burning the brush | swidden cultivation
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| swidden is __ of horticulture | typical
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| swidden cultivation is also called | slash and burn
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| form of pastoralism in which herd animals are moved regularly throughout the year to different areas as pasture becomes available | transhumant pastoralism
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| seek to understand effects of: physical environment on human cultures & vice-versa; interrelationships among cultures within environment; & humans changing subsistence strategies in response to challenges/threats to livelihood | ecological anthropologist
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| the natural environment is also a cultural __ | construction
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| __ is related to type of technology used to exploit any particular environment | productivity
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| in aboriginal America the __ __ supported a relatively small population which survived mainly on hunting bison | Great Plains
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| has enabled humans to transform a wide range of materials into sources of usable energy | technological advances
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| human technologies & __ __ have led to great increases in population density | cultural adaptations
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| due to increases in population density, human tech. & cultural adaptations, have greatly intensified __ __ on the environment | human effects
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| up until 10,000 yr ago all humans lived by | fishing, hunting, & collecting vege food
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| foraging sets limits on population __ & __, as well as on __ of social organization in these societies | growth; density; complexity
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| 11-10,000 yr ago human groups in the __ __ began domestication of plants & animals | Old World
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| domestication of plants & animals took place in the __ __ about 10-9,000 years ago | New World
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| domestication of plants/animals allowed support of increased populations, causing sedentary village life to become __ | widespread
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| domestication of plants/animals provided more intensive means of __ & __ __ | cultivation; animal management
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| more intensive means of cultivation & animal management lead to closer coordination/control of __ __ | human labor
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| closer coordination/control of human labor lead to complex social forms, such as | the state
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| within general outline of growing control over environment & increased human population, specific __ & __ conditions explain sequence of events in any particular place | environmental; historical
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| populations such as aboriginal people of __ or the __ never made transition from foraging to food production | Australia; Inuit
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| climate & soil composition, in the __, precluded agriculture | Arctic
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| in fertile valleys of __ aboriginal foraging so productive there was little pressure to make transition to food production | California
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| intro of horses by Spaniards in 16th century led to __ giving up traditional cultivation strategy due to doing so well w/bison hunting | Cheyenne
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| resist abandoning foraging & pastoral way of life because they prefer economic, social, & psychological satisfaction of this lifestyle | current foraging/pastoral populations
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| in current foraging/pastoral populations hunting & pastoralism are highly __ __ | valued occupations
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| current foraging/pastoral populations hunting & pastoralism are intimately connected to a people's __ __ | cultural identity
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| hunting & pastoralism are in some circumstances more __ than agriculture | productive
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| use of chemical __ & __ in industrialized agriculture of food production has greatly increased productivity | pesticides; fertilizers
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| in typical __ __ more than 80% of population directly involved in food production | non-industrialized society
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| today only 1% of the __ population claims farming as primary occupation & only 2% lives on farms | US
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| know names of 100s species of plants/trees; place of each species in web of forest life; importance of vegetal diversity providing animals w/specialized preferred foods; manage resources in diverse, complex, & sophisticated ways | Amazonians of rain forests
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| carefully manage soil, protect ground cover, control humidity, & manage pests in gardens - based on deep understanding of soil, properties of fire, relations of seasons to plant growth, & impact of food-getting activities on environment | Kayapo of Xingu River basin S. America
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| knowledge of medicinal properties of roots, leaves, bulbs & bark of over 30 plants - used by people of S. Africa cure problems headaches, stomachaches, sores/colds, toothache, & intestinal parasites | pastoral Dikale
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| consumer desires & energy needs of industrialized & industrializing nations are the central courses of __ __ today | environmental degradation
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| when the European culture introduced cattle/sheep to Peru they consumed crops of indigenous peoples, __ __ had depended on these crops | Inca Empire
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| European fashions for furs almost destroyed __ __ of fur-bearing animals such as beaver | N. America
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| European consumer demands for __ __ are leading to devastating logging in tropical rainforests | tropical hardwoods
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| European demand for sugar/tobacco resulted in huge areas of __ agriculture, transforming physical environment of Americas | monocrop
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| European demand for sugar/tobacco introduced __ __ to Americas, changing the social environment | African slavery
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| in __ __ of US dam building affected salmon ability to spawn | Pacific Northwest
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| salmon are an important food & also an object of religious awe for the __ __ of the Pacific NW in US | Native Americans
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| resulting from oil consumption & carbon emissions, having harmful effects on many traditional subsistence strategies & potentially catastrophic effects of environment | global warming
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| anthropological approach to each's use & impact on environment | typology of subsistence strategies
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| basic typology of subsistence strategies is broken down into | foraging, pastoralism, horticulture, agriculture, & industrialism
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| each subsistence strategy is a(n) __ __ | ideal type
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| most societies, in particular occurring in last 500 years, practice __ of subsistence strategies | combination
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| dairy & meat products are major part of the | pastoralists' diet
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| agriculture is also known as | intensive cultivation
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| agriculture uses more complex techniques of water/soil control so land is permanently __ & needs no __ period | cultivated; fallow
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| each subsistence strategy __ characteristic level of population density | supports
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| population density supported by a subsistence strategy is the number of persons per __ __ of land | square unit
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| efficiency & productivity tend to be associated with characteristic forms of __ organization & certain __ patterns | social; cultural
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| where local tech. allows only limited exploitation of environment & safe/reliable contraception are unknown may be limited by __ __ that function to space births | cultural practices
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| sexual abstinence, abortion, infanticide, late weaning, & prohibitions on sexual intercourse while child is breast-feeding are ways that cultural practices | space births
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| in addition to limiting population, a society can extend its __ __ by trading | resource base
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| occurs in all types of societies; forms basis of historical/contemporary global economy, inc. all peoples all over world engaging in variety of food production & manufacturing | trade
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| complex hereditary exchange relationship w/Lese; meat, mushrooms, honey, building materials, medicine & agricultural labor for manioc, plantains, peanuts, & rice that is 50% of their diet | Mbuti foragers of Ituri rain forest C. America
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| provided Mbuti w/metal for knives/arrowheads, cotton cloth & aluminum pots | Lese
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| foraging is __ __ includes hunting lrg/sm game, fishing, & collecting various plant foods | diverse strategy
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| use simple tools including digging sticks, spatulas, spears, & bow/arrow; generally live in communities of 20-50 individuals | foragers
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| Arctic foragers depend almost solely on | hunting
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| studies show that women can identify more than 150 species of edible plants & men recognize for than 40 species of edible plants | Ju/'hoansi foragers
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| few of the marginal areas of current-day foragers can support a __ human population | year-round
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| foraging almost always involves __ __ to gain access to food/water | seasonal movement
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| foraging bands tend to have highly __ __ arrangements | flexible social
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| seasonal movement is a strong disincentive for foraging communities to __ material goods | accumulate
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| material possessions of foraging peoples tend to be limited to items | essential to survival
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| people of Great Sandy Desert, Australia; wide range of vegetal foods provided most of diet; can recognize 126 plants serving 138 social, economic, & medicinal functions | Pintupi
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| unreliability of __ __ posed fundamental change to Pintupi | water supplies
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| Pintupi use more than 75 different plants for | edible seeds
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| Pintupi's main constraint on population growth is __ __ __ during the hottest & driest months | scarcity of water
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| Pintupi have population density as low as one person per | 150-200 sq miles
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| most important influence on distance travel, places camp, length of time in one place for Pintupi | availability of food & water
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| wet season for Pintupi; water available, but food scarce & families spread across desert | Dec. - Feb. bring greatest material prosperity for Pintupi; edible fruits collected from 12 different plants & stored
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| Pintupi people live around water holes until | August
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| Pintupi __ __ on plains to attract game & stimulate growth of new grass seeds & tubers for following year | set fires
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| harshest time of year for Pintupi, called "hungry time" | November
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| for Pintupi, if rain does not come by __ foraging ceases almost entirely; average daily intake may be reduce to 800 calories | December
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| beginning in 1920s __ __ tribes began moving to mission/cattle stations, government settlements, & towns around desert fringe due to drought | Australian foraging
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| last Pintupi left the Western Desert in | 1996
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| estimated that adult Dobe Ju/'hoansi of Kalahari spends average of only 2-1/2 (6) hour days/wk in subsistence activities; women can gather enough in 1 day to feed family for 3 days | Richard Lee
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| most foragers have moved to permanent settlements, by __ or __ pressure in current times | choice; government
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| contemporary foraging bands rely on the __ for much of their food | market
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| found in E Africa (cattle), N Africa (camels), SW Asia (sheep/goats), C. Asia (yak), & sub-Arctic (caribou/reindeer) | major areas of pastoralism
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| w/exception of __ & __ in Peru, herds animals found in Americas were not easily domesticated | llama; alpaca
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| pastoralism can be either __ or __ | transhumant; nomadic
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| transhumant pastoralism is found mainly in | E Africa
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| pastoralism is a __ subsistence strategy | mixed
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| __ pastoralist societies tend to based on patrilineal kinship | nomadic
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| in SW Asia nomadic pastoralist characteristic political organization is __ __ w/powerful leaders allied in regional political networks | supratribal confederations
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| SW Asia nomadic pastoralists' were subordinated to various empires on __ & __ plateaus in the past | Iranian; Anatolian
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| SW Asia nomadic pastoralist, for past 200 yrs, have had to adapt policies set by distant governments of __ __, losing mush of their political/military autonomy | centralized nation-states
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| mixed pastoralist adaptation; SE corner of Iran-Baluchistan; occupies plateau 5000 ft above sea level | Yarahmadzai
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| Yarahmadzai live in small camps of | 5-25 families
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| when info about good pasture becomes available the __ Yarahmadzai camp migrates | entire
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| Yarahmadzai camps migrate anywhere from 5-25 miles in each move, due to __ __ quickly being exhausted | good pasturage
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| Yarahmadzai migrate to areas served by government __ __ to earn money by harvesting grain, due to hot/dry seasons | irrigation projects
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| staple food of Yarahmadzai; main source of protein, fat, calcium, & other nutrients | milk
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| many pastoralists today depend less on consuming __ __ of their herds | direct products
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| many pastoralists today depend more on __ of animals & animal products for cash | sale
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| many nomadic pastoralists are becoming __; pastoral __ in a cash economy | ranchers; specialists
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| highly integrated into national & international trade networks; specialize in selling meat animals to local markets, lambskins to international buyers, & sheep intestines to meet German demand for natural sausage casings | nomads in Afghanistan & Iran
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| critics of __ __ claim pastoralist's desires to increase size of herds leads to collective overgrazing & destruction of grasslands | nomadic pastoralism
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| it is government policies of agriculture than directly/indirectly exacerbate environmental __ | degradation
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| horticulturalist cultivated fields are not use year after year, but remain __ for some time after being cultivated | fallow
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| horticulture produces a lower __ per acre & uses less human __ than agriculture | yield; labor
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| horticulturalists grow enough food to support | local group
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| horticulturalists do not produce surplus that involve groups in larger __ __ with nonagricultural populations | market system
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| horticulturalists populations density does not exceed 150 people per sq mile & village may be | 100-1000 people
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| cultivate maize, beans, & squash in dry lands of NE Arizona | Hopi Indians
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| horticulture is __ in tropical rain forest adaptations of SE Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, some Pacific Islands & Amazon Basin in S America | typical
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| horticulturalists in rain forest adaptions practice | swidden
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| in practice of swidden burned vegetation is allowed to remain on soil, preventing | drying out from the sun
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| in practice of swidden bed of ash acts as a __, returning nutrients to soil | fertilizer
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| swidden cultivator's fields are used 1-5 years then allowed to fallow for period | up to 20 years
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| swidden cultivators require 5-6 times as much __ __ as they are actually cultivating | fallow land
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| swidden cultivation can have __ __ on environment is fields are cultivated before lain fallow for long enough to recover forest growth | deteriorating effect
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| because of possibility of __ __ __ swidden cultivation is considered both inefficient & destructive by governments | irreversible ecological deterioration
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| __ & giant __ mainly responsible for deterioration & disappearance of tropical forests, not swidden cultivation | logging; agribusiness
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| domestic pigs are important source of protein for these horticulturists to provide necessary proteins for human health | Papua New Guinea
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| keep goats, chickens, sheep & cows in this horticulturist society to provide necessary proteins for human health | Kofyar of Nigeria
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| this horticulturist society hunt monkeys & other rain forest animals to provide necessary proteins for human health | Yanomamo of Amazon
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| because of __ __ of swidden cultivation, horticulturists have diverse cultures | diverse environments
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| turning the soil w/use of plows, by agriculture, bring | nutrients to surface
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| agriculture requires some form of terracing in order to prevent crops & good soil from being washed away | hilly areas
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| uses techniques of natural fertilization, selective breeding of livestock & crops, & crop rotation, all of which increase productivity | preindustrial agriculture
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| agriculture can support populations increases by more __ __ of the same piece of land | intensive use
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| makes up only 9% of land area; supports 2/3+ of population through intensive wet rice cultivation using elaborate irrigation terraces | island of Java, Indonesia
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| __ population density is well over 200 people/sq mile | Javanese
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| maximum population density of __ __ in Indonesia, is about 145 persons/sq mile | swidden areas
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| growing rice in an __ __ requires about 233 person days of labor/year for each hectare | irrigated paddy
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| about 2.5 acres | hectare
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| agriculture requires more __ __ than horticulture | capital investment
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| agriculturalists are more __ to environment than horticulturists | vulnerable
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| for agriculturalists, who depend on 1-2 crops, one crop __ or __ that strikes draft animals may pose an economic disaster | failure; disease
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| agriculture is __ __ w/sedentary villages, rise of cities/state, occupational diversity, social stratification, & other complex forms of social organization | generally associated
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| some states in Africa were __ on horticulture | built
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| are enmeshed within larger complex societies, instead of those who only grow for subsistence of household | farmers (agriculturalists)
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| part of a farmers __ __ is used to support non-food-producing occupational specialists | food production
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| non-food-producing occupational specialists supported by agriculturalists | religious or ruling elites
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| Egyptian village exhibiting many of general characteristics of peasant villages | Musha
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| Musha characteristics include importance of household in __ | production
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| Musha characteristics include use of __ __ supply outside household | supplementary labor
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| Musha characteristics include need of many farmers depending on __ __ to supplement their income | part-time work
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| Musha characteristics include __ __ from cultivator by state in form of rent, taxes, & free labor | surplus extracted
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| Egypt has long & well-documented history of __ __ in agriculture | state intervention
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| intervention of the state in Musha is typical of __ __ in general | peasant societies
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| multiple strategies for making living in Musha highlight ways both physical & social environments provide __ but also constrain human __ & __ culture/society | opportunities; choices; shape
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| in industrialism focus of __ moves away from food to production of other goods & services | production
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| in industrialism __ in machinery & technologies of communication & info are increasingly important | investment
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| although food production is very large in __ __, only small % of population directly involved in food production | industrial society
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| 2005 US fewer than 1 million people, <0.5% of population, had farming as | primary occupation
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| industrialism has led to a shift from subsistence strategies to __ __ | wage labor
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| almost all transactions are mediated by money | industrial economies
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| industrial economies are based on principles that __ must constantly expand & __ standards of living must always rise | consumption; material
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| production systems that put limits on production & consumption, thus making lighter demands on environments | foraging, pastoralism, horticulture, & agriculture
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| contemporary __ & __ societies are characterized by well-coordinated specialized labor forces producing goods/services & smaller elite & managerial classes overseeing day-to-day operations & control of produced/distribution | industrial; postindustrial
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| important economic/social strata; increasing mobility, skill & education required for success | government bureaucracies
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| __ & __ are critical social issues in industrial societies because they require continued expansion generating higher levels of inequality | wealth; poverty
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| __ __ of opportunity, economic failure, illness & misfortune limit __ __ of vast numbers in industrialized societies | unequal distribution; life chances
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| characterize relations among as well as within nations | inequalities
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| creation of complex global systems of exchange between those who supply raw materials & those who use for manufacturing, as well as between __ & __, results in disparities of wealth within & among nations around world | manufactures; consumers
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| characterized by connectedness & change of a magnitude greater than anything seen before | contemporary world
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| particularly sensitive to complex linkages between local, regional, national & global contexts that structure modern world | anthropology
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| today can play important role in shaping government/global economic policies taking into account environmental implications of making a living on all who participate in global markets | anthropologists
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| all foragers exploit __ of their __ | diversity; environments
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| foragers whose traditional hunting strategy includes almost no collecting of plant food; 6000 yrs have hunted bow-head whales, walrus, caribou, & seal | Inuit of Arctic Circle
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| Inuit food quest does follow __ __ of their climate | seasonal variation
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| Inuit __ __ emphasize cooperation & mutual aid | cultural values
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| Inuit __ __ provide effective outlets for isolation & tension of long dark winters | religious rituals
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| Inuit __ __ organization allows local populations to expand/contract in response to seasonal variation in resources | flexible kinship
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| 20th-21st centuries has changed Inuit subsistence strategies, they now base livelihoods on combination of __ __ from variety of sources while maintaining traditional foraging | cash income
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| 20th century Western demand for furs replaced Inuit subsistence __ with commercial __ | hunting; trapping
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| subsistence hunting & commercial trapping provided Inuit with __ & __ | guns; cash
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| handicrafts, tourism, various government subsidies, & for Alaska Inuit payment from Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act | nontraditional sources of Inuit income today
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| subsistence hunting & __ __ of wildfoods, such as moose, caribou, whales, ducks, fish etc. continue to provide __ or more of Inuit diet | traditional uses; half
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| traditional foraging of Inuit, makes use of __ __ such as snowmobiles, gasoline, fishing nets & sleeping bags | modern technologies
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| many Inuit households have modern conveniences, requiring household members to work __ or __ in cash economy | full-time; seasonally
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| 70-yr-old Inuit from Yukon, Canada; 40 yrs ago in summer enough icebergs to land your boat & climb on them, now they are tiny | Danny Gordon
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| Inuit must __ to change of global warming | adapt
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| icebergs/permafrost melting at accelerated rate, due to global warming; difficult for __ __ hunters to maintain cultures & traditional ways of making living | Inuit marine
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| shrinking ice make harder for __ __ to fatten up on seals & becoming __ | polar bears; emaciated
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| in open seas have seen walruses try to climb on their white boats mistaking them from ice floes | Alaskan whale hunters
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| one of many foraging groups in NE Alaska & NW Canada affected by global warming; 8,000 live in small villages spread across sub-Arctic tundra; Mathew Gilbert | Gwich'in
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| main source of Gwich'in subsistence are __ __, which sizes decreased & less healthy due to global warming | caribou herds
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| __ __ is another threat facing Gwich'in of Arctic | oil exploration
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| one of many "cattle cultures" of E Africa; live in semiarid grasslands of Southern Kenya & NE Tanzania | Maasai
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| semiarid grasslands of Southern Kenya & NE Tanzania are characterized by many different __ | microenvironments
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| archaeological anthropologist reviving ancient system of agriculture w/potatoes as central crop, in high plateau region of Andes Mt. Bolivia | Alan Kolata
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| Alan Kolata is working with __ & local farmers | agronomists
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| Alan Kolata's site is located on shore of Lk Titicaca, site of ancient city from 1500 BCE called | Tiwanaku
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| has highest elevation of any commercially navigable lake in the world, & is slightly salty | Lk Titicaca
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| in order to adapt to opportunities & drawback of region, Tiwanaku farmers constructed system of __ agriculture | raised-bed
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| series of platforms; beginning layer of cobblestone; layer of clay; layer of sand/gravel; layer of fertile soil | raised-bed agriculture system
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| the layer of clay in raised-bed agriculture system prevented __ __ from lake from seeping into topsoil | salty water
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| the layer of sand/gravel, raised-bed agriculture system, promoted | drainage
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| the canals surrounding platforms of raised-bed agriculture system, trapped __ __ from intense Andean sunlight | radiant energy
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| the canals surrounding platforms of raised-bed agriculture system provided __ blanket of warm water to protect from evening frosts | insulating
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| the canals surrounding platforms of raised-bed agriculture system also became environment for plants, insects, & other organisms that | enriched the soil
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| after __ __ in 16th century the raised-bed agriculture system fell into disuse with farmers adopting colonizing methods | Spanish conquest
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| good but disturbing example of industrialism | American beef industry
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| for Americans meat is symbolic of | manliness
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| considered iconic American meal | meat & potatoes
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Review the information in the table. When you are ready to quiz yourself you can hide individual columns or the entire table. Then you can click on the empty cells to reveal the answer. Try to recall what will be displayed before clicking the empty cell.
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To hide a column, click on the column name.
To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
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lfrancois
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