Chapter 3 - ANT2410
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| ethnography that gives priority to informants on the topic, methodology, and written results of research | collaborative anthropology
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| notion that cultures should be analyzed with reference to their own histories and culture traits understood in terms of the cultural whole, rather than according to the values of another culture | cultural relativism
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| feelings of alienation and helplessness that result from rapid immersion in a new and different culture | culture shock
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| examining society using concepts, categories, and distinctions that are meaningful to members of that culture | emic
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| anthropology that includes political action as a major goal of fieldwork | engaged anthropology
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| judging other cultures from the perspective of one’s own culture; notion that one’s own culture is more beautiful, rational, and nearer to perfection than any other | ethnocentrism
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| major research tool of cultural anthropology; includes both fieldwork among people in society and the written results of fieldwork | ethnography
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| attempt to find general principles or laws that govern cultural phenomena | ethnology
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| examining societies using concepts, categories, and rules derived from science; an outsider’s perspective, which produces analyses that members of the society being studied may not find meaningful | etic
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| firsthand, systematic exploration of a society; involves living with a group of people & participating in/observing their behavior | fieldwork
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| ethnographic database that includes descriptions of more than 300 cultures and is used for cross-cultural research | Human Relations Area Files (HRAF)
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| person from whom an anthropologist gathers data | informant
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| requirement that participants in anthropological studies should understand the ways in which their participation and the release of the research data are likely to affect them | informed consent
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| committee organized by a university/other research institution that approves, monitors, & reviews all research that involves human subjects | institutional review board (IRB)
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| anthropologist who does fieldwork in his or her own culture | native anthropologist
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| fieldwork technique that involves gathering cultural data by observing people’s behavior and participating in their lives | participant observation
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| theoretical perspective focusing on issues of power & voice; suggests anthropological accounts are partial truths reflecting background, training, and social position of their authors | postmodernism
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| in place of artificially controlled laboratories, anthropologists rely on __ & __ __ | ethnography; cross-cultural comparison
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| used as a basis for cross-cultural comparison | ethnographies
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| ethnographic data from different societies analyzed to build/test hypotheses about general/universal social & cultural processes | cross-cultural comparison
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| fieldwork is a cultural anthropologists root for | data & theory
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| 1st scholars who termed themselves anthropologists worked in the 2nd 1/2 of | 19th century
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| saw themselves as compilers & analysts of ethnographic accounts, rather than field researchers | Tylor & Morgan
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| traveled widely in Mexico; wrote that his theoretical perspective was so well-established that he could ignore any data that did not fit | Sir Edward Burnett Tylor
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| traveled widely in western US | Louis Henry Morgan
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| critics referred to Tylor & Morgan as | armchair anthropologists
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| Tylor & Morgan were deeply influenced by evolutionary theories of | Darwin & Spencer
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| 19th century anthropologists sometimes referred to __ __ as living fossils | simpler societies
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| term living fossils was borrowed from | biology & paleontology
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| currently existing plants/animals that closely resemble their fossil ancestors | biology living fossil
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| societies believed to be unchanged for thousands of years | anthropologist living fossil
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| simple, small-scale societies were classified as | savages
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| various chiefdoms on scale usually classified as | barbarians
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| scale ended with societies such as current day classified as | civilization
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| explorers interest in playing up the most exotic aspects of the society being described in order to | increase fame
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| colonial officials & missionaries interest in playing up the most exotic aspects of the society being described in order to show the native more in need of | government or salvation
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| societies that early anthropologists believed were living fossils were often | of recent origin
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| evolutionists were so sure they had properly formulated the general evolutionary history they often twisted & contorted data to | fit their theories
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| most important critic of evolutionism; 1st professor of anthropology at Columbia University; ideas had profound development of anthropology in US | Franz Boas
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| Boas' studies as well as experiences among the Inuit convinced him that __ anthropology was intellectually flawed & morally defective | evolutionary
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| argued that anthropologists should not be mere collectors of tales & spinners of theories, but rather should devote themselves to fieldwork, to objective data collecting | Boas
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| Boas' style of fieldwork became known as __ __ & has been the hallmark of American anthropology | participant observation
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| one of Boas' core beliefs was that cultures are byproducts of | their own history
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| evolutionist's incorrectly assumed that the more a culture's value approached those of Europeans, the more | evolved it was
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| Boas & his followers maintained that anthropologists must __ __ in order to understand the logic & dynamics of other cultures | suspend judgment
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| Boas argued that all human beings have an equal capacity for __ | culture
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| Boas argued that all human __ might be considered morally right or wrong | actions
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| Boas argued that no culture was more evolved or of __ __ than another | greater value
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| widely used by Americans who argued for equality of men & women, rights of African Americans, immigrants & Native Americans | Boas, Benedict & Mead
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| mounted (2) expeditions to Torres Straits; late 19th century British anthropologist | Alfred Cort Haddon
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| Haddon was originally a biologist but during his travels turned his interest to | ethnography
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| became professors at Cambridge & London School of Economics where they trained the next generation of British Commonwealth anthropologists | Haddon & colleagues
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| 1 of most prominent student of Torres Strait scholars; spent years w/Trobriand Islanders; forcefully promoted idea that native cultures were logical & rational | Bronislaw Malinowski
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| argued that magic was like science it had "definite aim & governed by theory" | Malinowski
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| focused on understanding cultures w/respect to their context & history | Boas & students
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| emphasized notion of function: contribution made by social practices & institutions to maintenance & stability of society | Malinowski & students
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| fundamental insights & principles remain basic to current-day anthropology | Malinowski & Boas
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| only by living with people & engaging in their activities can we begin to understand the interrelated | pattern of culture
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| the constant attempt to __ in another culture gives anthropologists a depth of understanding that is impossible to achieve in any other way | participate
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| limitation of participant observation is that anthropologists necessarily work with | limited numbers of individuals
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| originally started to review medical research, but in most places have expanded their scope of operation to include all research involving living people | IRBs
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| personal history, geographical preferences, political stability, cost, physical danger, & connections are all decisions about which | communities anthropologists investigate
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| most critical aspect of choosing anthropological location has to do with particular __ __ of the anthropologist | research questions
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| in early 20th century anthropologists studying groups/societies attempted to write __ __ of societies | complete descriptions
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| modern-day anthropologists feel societies are so __ they cannot be described in a __ __ | complex; single work
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| because societies' connections are so __ today they must be seen in __ & __ contexts | interconnected; regional; global
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| focus on specific situations, individuals, events & frequently on culture change | current ethnographies
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| ethnography describes Native Americans & casino gambling | Darian-Smith 2004
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| ethnography describes relationship between indigenous people & national parks | Igoe 2004
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| ethnography describes ways in which immigrant communities cope with new customs & values | Stepick 1998
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| questions anthropologists ask & conditions & locations where they can be answered have become | more specific
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| anthropologists spend a great deal of time reading the existing research on their subject once they have | identified an area of general interest
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| by anthropologists spending time reading the existing research on their subject they can design projects that help to | close the gaps in existing knowledge
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| anthropologists arriving in new cultures are in many ways like | children
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| learning language, custom, social organizations are the fundamental grounding knowledge that is required to | get past culture shock
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| the aim of __ research is to enable cultural outsiders to gain a sense of what it might be like to be a member of the culture | emic
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| may produce conclusions that conflict with the ways in which people understand their own culture | etic analysis
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| judged by the usefulness of hypothesis it generates & degree to which it accurately describes behavior | etic research
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| anthropologists propose hypothesis & collect empirical data to determine whether/not hypothesis can be supported | research model from natural sciences
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| analyzed pregnancy beliefs among women of African descent in 3 communities in US | Wendy Phillips 2005
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| recently studies important role of motorbikes in current-day urban Vietnam | Allison Truitt 2008
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| some anthropological research is more highly interpretive & uses techniques from study of | history & literature
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| emphasize collaborative nature of fieldwork & suggest that people who work w/anthropologists are active & empowered; informants | respondents, interlocutors, & consultants
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| sometimes anthropologists work with __ __ who they believe are well informed & eager to talk with them | key informants
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| sometimes anthropologists use __ __ to chose their consultants, so they may construct statistical models | random sampling
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| the best way to understand difference between what people say they do, feel or think & what they actually do | participation
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| no one, including an anthropologist, can provide a fully __ & __ portrait of a culture | accurate; unbiased
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| participation forces researcher to think more deeply about culture, giving greater __ & __ to info obtained through interviews & observation | context; depth
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| inventories & questionnaires; open-ended questions; structured questions are all different | interview techniques
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| includes mapping, photography, careful silent observation of range of activities, measurements of various kinds of production, & apprenticeships are examples of | anthropological data gathering
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| depends on questions being asked & theoretical perspective of researcher | analysis of data
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| generally comes in form of extensive field notes, tape recordings, & photographs | anthropological data
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| field notes have to be | indexed
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| tape recording have to be | transcribed
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| data has to be entered into | spreadsheets
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| successful anthropologists often spend more time working with their __ than they did __ it | data; collecting
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| some level of __ has always been implicit in anthropology | comparison
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| one goal of the __ was to use their research to cause Europeans & Americans to compare their own society w/societies anthropologists described | Boasians
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| through comparison anthropologists hope people will think about their own societies in a new light & help | change them for the better
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| ethnology was more explicitly important to __ & __ anthropologists | British; European
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| ethnologies compared societies in the hope of deriving __ __ of social organization & behavior | general principles
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| began to develop systematic way of organizing, tabulating, & correlating info on large number of societies; project called Descriptive Sociology | Herbert Spencer 1860s
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| brought Spencer's ideas about cross-cultural comparison to US | Sumner, Keller & Murdock
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| in late 1930s, created large, indexed ethnographic database at Yale University called Cross Cultural Survey | Murdock & Keller
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| in late 1940s Cross Cultural Survey was expanded to include other universities & name changed to | HRAF
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| HRAF is an attempt to facilitate __ __, providing ethnographic reports & other sources on 710 numbered subject categories | cross-cultural analysis
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| techniques of clothing manufacture is | 294 in HRAF
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| traditional friendships & rivalries within communities is | 628 in HRAF
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| using HRAF researcher can find info on a wide range of __ & __ societies | current; historical
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| critics of HRAF charge that it takes __ __ out of context & corrupts it | cultural data
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| because works indexed in HRAF are written from different perspectives, for different purposes, & in different eras, indexing is often | inconsistent or inappropriate
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| due to rise of divorce in 1950s __ used HRAF to show almost all societies had some form of divorce & US rate was lower than average | Murdock
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| Murdock's use of HRAF allowed people to think about divorce in a | comparative context
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| used HRAF to consider issue of family violence in 1989 | Levinson
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| used HRAF to consider issue of corporal punishment of children in 2005 | Ember & Ember
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| used HRAF to consider issue of patterns if cultural evolution in 2004 | Peregrine, Ember & Ember
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| used HRAF to consider issue of adolescent gender & sexuality in 1991 | Schlegel & Barry
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| cross-cultural research can be done by a(n) __ __ working in 2/more locations | single investigator
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| cross-cultural research can be done by a(n) __ __ working in multiple locations | investigative team
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| examples of cross-cultural researcher done by a team/single investigator includes studies of violence in 2000 by | Aijmer & Abbink
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| examples of cross-cultural researcher done by a team/single investigator includes studies of economics in 2006/2004 by | Durrenberger & Marti/Henrich et al
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| examples of cross-cultural researcher done by a team/single investigator includes studies of language & cognition in 2003 by | Wierzbicka
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| rich area of cross-cultural research is | medical anthropology
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| delivery of effective medical services to all members of different cultures, through knowledge of ways different groups understand diseases, is a critical area of interest to | applied medical anthropologists
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| medical anthropologists need to know how people in different cultures understand the __, __ & __ for different diseases | causes; symptoms; cures
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| in 2007 recently investigated migraine headache symptoms among 3 different groups of Native Americans (Tzeltal Maya/Mexico, Kamayurá/Brazil, Uru-Chipaya/Bolivia) | Carod-Artal & Vásquez-Cabrera
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| in study by Carod-Artal & Vásquez-Cabrera they found that the understanding of origin of migraines & how to treat them __ __ within the 3 groups & when compared to our society, although all had own named syndromes w/symptoms matching migraines | greatly differed
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| study of preschools in China, Japan & US to examine preschools comparatively, but also 3 different cultures through the focus link w/preschools & larger cultural/social concerns/change | Tobin, Wu, & Davidson 1989
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| one reason anthropologists had focused primarily on social roles, activities, & beliefs of men was in many societies men & women live quite __ lives, with little access to the women | segregated
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| one reason anthropologists had focused primarily on social roles, activities, & beliefs of men because they tended to assume men's activities were __ & therefore more __ | political; important
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| one reason anthropologists had focused primarily on social roles, activities, & beliefs of men because men's activities were far more __ than that of the women | public
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| result of taking the role's of men more seriously than the women was a __ __ in anthropological data & understandings | systematic bias
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| frequently implicit in ethnologies, were assumptions that men spoke for all of society making cultures appear more __ than they actually were | harmonious
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| urged anthropologists to examine ways they understood fieldwork & writing ethnographies; demanded they become sensitive to issues of history & power | postmodernists
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| postmodernists claim fieldworkers cannot discover & describe an __ reality because such a thing does not exist | objective
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| postmodernists challenged ethnographer's role in __ culture | interpreting
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| postmodernists claimed that anthropological ethnographies were just one story about __ __ | experienced reality
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| postmodernists claimed that the ethnographer's voice was only __ __ __ possible representations | one of many
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| in 1978, was a critical moment in opening anthropology to postmodern ideas | Orientalism - Edward Said
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| refers to the colonial British name for what is now called the Middle East | "orient" in Said's title
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| Said argued that European art, drama & anthropology/social sciences gave simplified, distorted & romanticized view of Middle Eastern cultures, portraying them as timeless societies full of | savagery & exotic wonder
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| the lives of Middle Eastern women were misunderstood due to European's fascination with __ & __ of Middle Eastern cultures | gender; sexuality
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| during 1990s reflection on the __ of fieldwork & anthropological __ became focus of writing in anthropology | nature; enterprise
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| influenced by the work of Said encouraged anthropologists to write about their __ __ of living in other cultures, rather than about them | own experience
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| almost all anthropologists today agreed that ethnographers need to __ __ on their positions as observers | reflect critically
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| almost all anthropologists today agreed that ethnographers need to be aware of __ & __ consequences of their work | moral; political
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| most ethnographies now include info about __ under which fieldwork was carried out | conditions
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| most ethnographies now include info about __ of the relationships between anthropologists & consultants | nature
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| process of working closely w/other people & in a sense describes all anthropological research | collaboration
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| consult w/their subjects about shaping their studies & writing their reports; attempt to displace anthropologist as sole author rep. a group, turning research into joint project | collaborative anthropologists
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| important contribution to collaborative, engaged anthropology | James Spradley
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| classic ethnography by Spradley, aimed at getting public to understand & help the homeless alcoholics who were subjects of book | You Owe Yourself a Drunk 1970
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| inspired by Spradley; done several collaborative projects; work w/NA to develop ethnology of experience of drug addition & recovery that could be given to addicts considering to join NA | Erik Lassiter
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| constructed collaborative project w/Kiowa Indians in OK; ethnography of Kiowa song; giving highest priority to representing Kiowa cultural consultants as they wished to be represented | Lassiter
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| for Lassiter collaborative ethnography is not just __ comments of cultural consultants, but __ integrating these comments back into the text | eliciting ; integrating
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| move from describing & analyzing communities they study to actively promoting their interests & welfare | engaged anthropologists
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| many anthropologists believe that for anthropology to be relevant & meaningful it must be involved in political & social efforts to improve | life chances for people in community
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| studies social services for homeless people; move attention on causes to the center of American culture & politics | Vincent Lyon-Callo
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| Lyon-Callo believes most homelessness results from cultural/political philosophy that embraces the free market & private initiative as | solution to social problems
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| Lyon-Callo argues that most Americans have a __ __ orientation to homelessness | "social services"
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| increasing unemployment, declining relative wages & exploitation of workers are the __ __ that Lyon-Callo mentions | systematic inequalities
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| Lyon-Callo suggests that __ __ can challenge routine understandings, raise new questions, & get people thinking in new ways | anthropological analysis
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| collaborative anthropology may give __ & __ to one element of a community over another | voice; legitimacy
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| in wake of postmodernism, anthropologists have acknowledged objectivity & subjectivity are | problematic concepts
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| W. Lloyd Warner, Solon T. Kimball, Margaret Mead, Zora Neale Hurston, & Hortense Powdermaker were all American anthropologists who wrote about | American culture
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| freedom fighter, 1President of Kenya, wrote about Gikuyu of Kenya 1938 | Jomo Kenyatta
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| Chinese anthropologists who wrote extensively on Chinese society | Francis Hsu
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| in recent years __ anthropologists have become more common | native
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| emphasis on more reflective fieldwork & ethnography affects those anthropologists, in particular, who | study their own culture
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| challenge for native anthropologists is to see their culture as | an outsider would see it
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| it may be easier to remain culturally relativistic when we confront patterns in other cultures than when confront problematic situations such as child neglect, corporate greed or armed conflict in our own | Margaret Mead
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| contrasted her work w/ Huichol of northern Mexico in 1974 with her work among elderly Jewish people living in California in 1978; died at age 49 of cancer | Barbara Myerhoff
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| "an act of imagination, a means for discovering what is not & will never be" | Myerhoff
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| being a native in one identity does not make one a native in all one's identities | Delmos Jones
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| anthropologists 1st ethical obligation is to | people being studied
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| informed consent critical aspect of anthropological | ethics
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| obtaining informed consent requires the anthropologists to take part in ongoing & dynamic discussion w/ their consultants about the __ of the study as well as the __ & __ of participation | nature; risk; benefits
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| anthropologists should conduct themselves in ways the do not endanger the research __ or lives of other anthropologists | prospects
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| anthropologists who violate the mores/ethics of communities in which they work or align themselves w/governments/military may endanger lives & any __ __ by other anthropologists | future contact
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| anthropologists are obligated to publish their findings in forms that are available to | other anthropologists & general public
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| anthropologists acknowledge that certain forms of __ are acceptable, & on occasion even required | secrecy
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| mid 1960s Project Camelot was attempt by Army & Dept. of Defense to enlist anthropologists & other social scientists in achieving American | foreign policy goals
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| purpose was to create model for predicting civil wars but was also implicated in using military & cultural means to fight insurgency movements & prop up friendly governments | Project Camelot
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| Project Camelot let to the first official statement on __ __ in 1971 | anthropological ethics
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| anthropologists work at __ __ & __ providing anthropological training for officers or analyses of the culture of the military itself | military colleges; bases
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| anthropologist work on the ground collecting data in zones of | active conflict
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| most anthropologists & social scientists working for the military work for a program called | Human Terrain Systems (HTS)
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| soldiers all of ranks who understand dynamics of culture, & structure/distribution of power within a society are liable to be more successful & __ __ than those who do not | less destructive
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| military's interest in __ __ is related to conquest, domination, & control of other populations | anthropological knowledge
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| noted that although anthropologists working in universities & military face similar issues, at least in theory anthropologists in universities seek knowledge for its own sake instead of the military who seeks it victory, security, & defense | David Price
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| in early 2007 Pentagon employed __ __ to help in its combat brigades | HTS teams
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| recent AAA report notes that __ __ __ raises concerns about obligations to those whom anthropologists study | engagement with military
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| recent AAA report notes that engagement with military raises concerns about __ for the discipline, one's own colleagues, & broader academic community | perils
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| recent AAA report notes that engagement with military raises concerns about issues of __ & __ | secrecy; transparency
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| primary concern of anthropologists working in HTS must be the safety, security, & goals of their __ instead of those outlines in __ __ | employers; anthropological ethics
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| immigration, inexpensive communications, & relatively cheap airfare have altered the world & the nature of the | anthropologist's job
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| almost all ethnographers must take into account the interaction of these local units with larger | social structures, economies, & cultures
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| must often use questionnaires, social surveys, archival material, government documents, & court records in addition to participant observation | contemporary ethnographers
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| 1960/70s drug addict subculture drew anthropologists into the world of | substance abuse & drug addiction
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| ethnography was a particularly suitable __ for studying street drug scenes & participants | methodology
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| anthropologists have introduced models that aim at connecting individual drug users & sellers w/ larger, structural features of | society & economy
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| demonstrated that patterns of drug-related violence vary as result of ways in which political decisions & economic processes impact on neighborhoods, families & kinship networks | Hamid 1990s
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| Hamid's work showed that drug __ & __ are integrated w/larger economic/political issues, particularly those affecting transformation of minority neighborhoods | use; distribution
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| found residents of Southside view drugs quite differently than both the law & cultural norms of middle-class America | Kojo Dei
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| Southside residents define a "drug addict" as someone who __ __ because of their drug use | cannot function
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| social services & medical professional define drug addict as physical __ __ | withdrawal symptoms
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| studying drug use in Hartford, CT since 1980s; important contributions to AIDS preventing education & effectiveness of needle-exchange programs in preventing AIDS | Merrill Singer
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| study found that more than 80% of drug users interviewed mixed alcohol w/other drugs & did so for variety of reasons | Singer, Salaheen, Mirhej, & Santelice 2005
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| researchers have found that alcohol was both a gateway drug & | gateway-back
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| 1990 study of dangers to anthropologists in the field identified __, __, & __ __ as the 3 greatest risks anthropologists face | malaria; hepatitis; vehicle crashes
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| 1990 study of dangers to anthropologists in the field identified high rate of encounters with __, __, & __ __ | violence; criminality; political instability
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| 1990 study of dangers to anthropologists in the field identified at least __ of anthropologists experienced "criminal interpersonal hazards" | 42%
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| 1990 study of dangers to anthropologists in the field identified __ of anthropologists reports living through political turmoil such as war, revolution, & rioting | 22%
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| anthropologists of the past worked in areas that were | artificially peaceful
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| anthropologists of the past worked in areas that were controlled by __ __ or were American protectorates | colonial governments
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| writes that informants & anthropologists inevitably share experienced & that in her case these included being frightened, confused, & disoriented, & suffering from general loss of perspective | Monique Skidmore
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| worked on streets of Port-au-Prince Haiti called Kosovo; writes that doing ethnography of violence can make critical contribution to anthropological theory | Kovats-Bernat
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| worked in Sierra Leone during UN civil war | Danny Hoffman
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| in reality it is often the subjects of research who must | protect the researcher
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| writes "Our privileged position, specialized training, & unique skills...carry with them specific ethical obligations to promote the well-being of people who are collaborators in our anthropological research & in production of anthropological knowledge | Laura R Graham
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| points our standing for human rights is often a matter of life & death | Ida Nicholaisen
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