First lecture exam - Spinal
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| Bone as connective tissue | Matrix composed of collagen fibers and hydroxyapatite ground substance
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| What is the role of collagen? | Gives strength under tensile forces
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| What is hydroxyapetite? | Inorganic mineral substance, giving strength under compressive forces
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| Bone as the organ | Composed primarily of bony connective tissue plus other types of connective tissue as well as nervous and epithelial elements.
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| Functions of the skeletal system | 1. Provides structure, support and protection 2. Locomotion 3. Blood formation 4. Storehouse for some inorganic minerals (Ca) 5. Forensic purposes
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| Classification of bones by shape | 1. Long bones 2. Short bones 3. Flat bones 4. Irregular bones 5. Pneumatic bones 6. Accessory bones 7. Sesamoid bones 8. Accessory bones 9. Heterotopic bones
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| Classification by location | 1. Axial 2. Appendicular
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| Axial skeleton | 1. Skull 2. Hyoid 3. Vertebral 4. Sternum 5. Ribs
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| Skull | 28 bones; Neurocramium (8) Facial skeleton (14) Auditory ossicles (6)
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| Hyoid bone | 1 bone
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| Vertebral column | 26 bones; Cervical vertebrae (7) Thoracic (12) Lumbar (5) Sacrum (1) Coccyx (1)
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| Sternum | 1 bone
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| Ribs | 24 bones
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| Appendicular skeleton | 1. Shoulder 2. Upper extremity 3. Hip 4. Lower extremity
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| Shoulder | 4 bones: scapula + clavicle
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| Upper extremity | 30 bones on each side; arm (1) forearm (2) hand (27)
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| Hand | Wrist = carpus (8) Palm = metecarpals (5) Fingers = phalanges (14)
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| Hip | 1 bone
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| Lower extremity | Thigh (1) Leg (3) Foot (26) Toes = phalanges (14)
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| Diaphysis | Bone shaft: primary center of ossification
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| Epiphysis | Often associated with the area of articulation with another bone: secondary site of ossification
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| Epiphyseal plate | aka Disk. Separating the diaphysis and epiphysis, composed of hyaline cartilage
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| Periosteum and endosteum | Membranes covering outer and inner bone surfaces
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| Articular cartilage | Covering the bone where it articulates with other bones; composed of hyaline cartilage
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| Surface features | 1. Elevations 2. Indentations 3. Facets
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| Elevations | 1. Linear (line, ridge, crest) 2. Rounded (tubercle, protuberance, tuberosity, trochanter, malleolus) 3. Projection (spine, process)
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| Indentations | 1. Depressions (groove, sulcus, fossa, fovea, cavity) 2. Passageway (fora,em, canal meatus)
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| Facets | Flattened, smooth surfaces for bone articulation
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| Types of mature bone tissue | 1. Spongy 2. Compact 3. Subcondral
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| Compact bone | Bone composed of osteons (aka Haversian systems), Lamellae, Central canal, Lacunae, Canaliculi, Perforating canals
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| Lamellae | Concentric rings of bony connective tissue
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| Central Canal | In the middle of the osteon, vascular and innervated
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| Lacunae | Holes found between lamellae
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| Canaliculi | Connecting lacunae to each other and to the central canal
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| Perforating canals | Connecting central canals to each other
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| Subchondral bone | Found underlying articular cartilage, making up the facet surface
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| Osteoblast | Lays down new bone
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| Osteocytes | Found resting within the lacunae, maintain surrounded bone tissue and regulates mineral content
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| Osteoclasts | Bone destroying cells (large and multinucleated)
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| Wolf's law | Bone remodels according to the way force is transmitted through it; bone architecture reflects its function
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| Intramembranous bone | aka Dermal. Skull bones + clavicle
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| Endochondral bones | aka Catilaginous. Bones of skull base + all postcranial bones + parts of the clavicle
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| Ontogenic process in endochondral bone | 1. Cartilaginous model forms (hylaine cartilage) 2. Cartilage disintergrates and excavates interior of the bone 3. Connective tissue cells differentiate into osteoblasts, which starts forming spongy bone 4. Periosteum forms
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| 5. Further growth takes place in both directions
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| How does bone growth happen? | 1. Between the diaphysis and epiphysis 2. Increase in overall size
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| Interstitial growth | Bone growth between the diaphysis and epiphysis
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| Appositional growth | Overall increase in the size of the bone
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| Describe interstitial growth | 1. Blood vessels invade ends of the bone which becomes the secondary center of ossification 2. Epiphyseal plate: zone of cartilage remaining between primary and secondary ossification centers
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| Describe appositional growth | New compact bone deposited by osteoblasts just below the periosteum. The osteoclasts at the inner bone surface destroy bon and enlarge the medullary cavity.
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| Ontogenetic process in intramembranous bone | 1. Membrane forms around blood vessel 2. Undifferentiated connective tissue cells around blood vessels differentiates into osteoblasts, which start forming spongy bone. 3. Periosteum forms. 4. Remaining growth happens like appositional growth
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| Vitamin C | Necessary for proper collagen formation. deficiency leads to scurvy
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| Vitamin D | Necessary for proper bone mineralization. Deficiency leads to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults
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| Excess parathyroid hormone | Leads to bone weakening
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| Excess of growth hormone (pituitary) | Leads to gigantisism in children and accromegaly in adults
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| Deficit in growth hormone | Leads to dwarfism in children
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| Types of fractures | 1. Simple 2. Compound 3. Comminuted 4. Compression or impacted 5. Greenstick 6. Avulsion
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| Simple fracture | Bone is broken but not displaced
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| Compound fracture | Bone breaks through the skin
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| Compression fracture | Bone is compressed or telescopes within itself
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| Communited fracture | Bone is fragmented
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| Greenstick | Incomplete fracture + bending of the bone
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| Avulsion fracture | Tendon or ligament pulls the bone away at the site of attachement
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| Healing of fracture | 1. fracture hematoma 2. Soft callus forms 3. Hard callus form 4. Remodeling of hard callus into mature bone
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| Soft callus is composed of what? | Spongy bone and fibrocartilage
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| Osteitis | Inflammation of bone tissue caused by injury or infection
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| Periostitis | Inflammation of periosteum caused by trauma or infection
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| Osteomyelitis | Inflammation of bone interior caused by bacteria, usually entering the bone via the blood stream
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| Tuberculosis | Can spread to the spongy bone, resulting in bone and joint destruction
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| Benign Neoplasms | 1. Osteochondroma 2. Osteoma
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| Malignant Neoplasms | 1. Osteogenic sarcoma 2. Multiple myeloma
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| Osteoporosis | The reduction in bone mass due to deossification, most prevalent in middle-ages and elderly woman
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| Function of the vertebral column | 1. Protection of spinal cord and spinal nerve roots 2. Support of the body 3. Movement of trunk and limbs
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| Kyphotic | Spinal concavity faces anteriorly
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| Lordotic | Spinal concavity faces posteriorly
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| Primary curvatures present in early fetal development | 1. Thoracic curve (kyphotic) 2. Sacrococcygeal curve (kyphotic)
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| Secondary curvatures: develops after the primary curvature is already established | 1. Cervical curvature (lordotic) 2. Lumbar curvature (lordotic)
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| Lateral curves of the spine | Spinal concavity faces laterally, either right or left
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| Vertebral body | Anterior portion of the vertebrae
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| Shape or the vertebral body | Roughly cylindrical but specific shape varies by region
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| Epiphyseal rim of vertebral body | Superior and inferior
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| Nutrient foramina | Small foramina on front, back and sides of vertebral body for arteries and veins
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| Basivertebral venous foramen | 1 or 2 large, centrally places foramina on posterior wall of vertebral body
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| Parts of the vertebral arch | 1. Pedicle 2. Lamina 3. Vertebral foramen and vertebral canal 4. Lamina-pedicle junction
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| Pedicle | Anterior portion of the arch
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| Lamina | Posterior portion of the arch
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| Para-articular processes | Acessory bone on the superior and or inferior edge of the lamina
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