A&P 1st exam
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| sagittal | vertical. left and right
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| transverse | horizontal. superior and interior
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| coronal | vertical. anterior and posterior
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| appendicular region includes | limbs and their girldles
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| Axial region includes | head, neck, trunk
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| Dorsal cavity contains | brain and spinal cord
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| Ventral Cavity contains | thoracic, abdominal, pelvic cavities
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| Thoracic cavity | surrounded by ribcage. includes lungs, heart etc
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| Abdominal cavity | bounded by abdominal muscles. includes stomach, intestines, etc.
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| pelvic cavity | inside pelvic bones. includes bladder and internal sexual organs.
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| Abdominopelvic Cavity | Abdominal + Pelvic Cavities
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| four abdominopelvic regions | right upper, left upper, right lower, left lower
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| six abdominopelvic regions | right hypochondriac, epigastirc, left hypochondriac.
right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar.
right illiac, hypogastric, left illiac
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| serous membranes | cover organs in trunk cavities and contain serous fluid. reduces friction.
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| endomorph | round, heavy physique. lots of fat in trunk and thighs.
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| mesomorph | muscular physique
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| ectomorph | thin, little body fat
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| fluid mosaic model. | bi-layer phospholipids, that allow some molecules to pass through protein channels
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| cytoplasm | substance inside cells, contains organeeles
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| organelles | inside cells. some are membranous, some are not.
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| nucleus | all cells have one. contains genetic material. DNA.
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| nucleoli | inside nucleus.
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| ribososmes | site of protein synthesis
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| endoplasmic reticulum | folded. extends from nucleus into cytoplasm. rough ER has ribosomes. smooth ER is site of lipid synthesis.
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| golgi apparatus | folded. packages material for secretion from the cell. goes into vesicles.
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| secretory vesicles. | pinch off golgi and move things in and out of cells.
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| lysosomes | contain enzymes for intracellular digestion
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| mitochondria | bean shaped with inner folds. site of ATP synthesis. produces energy.
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| vaults | contains proteins and RNA. transport role.
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| cilia | many project from cells, move substances, mucus etc.
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| flagella | long string from cell. usually one. sperm etc.
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| microvilli | project from cells. increase surface area.
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| diffusion | solute molecules move from higher concentration to lower.
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| osmosis | diffusion of water across a semi-permiable membrane from higher conc. to lower conc.
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| filtration | through a membrane in response to external pressure.
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| active transport | transport across concentration gradient. requires ATP energy
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| endocytosis/exocytosis | in and out of a cell through a vesicle
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| isotonic | conc. is the same on both sides of the membrane.
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| hypertonic | solution has higher conc.
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| hyprotonic | solution has lower conc.
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| homeostasis | existence and maintenance of constant environment in body, eg temperature.
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| Negative feedback | maintains homeostasis. negates any change in the normal states.
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| positive feedback | leads away from homeostasis. makes change bigger.
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| four tissue types | connective, epithelial, muscle, nervous
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| epithelial | covers body surfaces. little extracellular material. has basement membrane.
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| simple squamous | one layer. flat cells. diffusion. alveoli.
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| simple cuboidal | one layer. square cells. secretion and absorbtion. kidneys.
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| simple columner | one layer. tall and thin. may have microvilli, cilia, goblet cells.
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| pseudostratified | appears to be stratified, but is simple.line trachea etc.
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| stratified squamous | many layers. flat cells. keratinized/unkeratinized. outer layer of skin etc.
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| transitional | many layers. can be stretched. changes from cuboidal to squamous as it's stretched. bladder.
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| glands | structure that secretes substances.
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| exocrine glands | have ducts. may be simple, branched and tubular.
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| endocrine glands | no ducts. directly into the blood.
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| connective tissue (C) | cells and extracellular matrix.joins cells and tissues. protection. support.
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| collagen C | most common protein.flexible, hard, fibrous.
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| dense connective tissue C | ECM made of mostly of collagen fibres..tendons etc.
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| loose connective tissue C | protein fibres separated. fills space between organs. around glands, muscles etc.
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| apidose tissue C | not typical. protects organs. loose connective.
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| Cartilage C | made of chondrocytes. collagen matrix.strong. no blood supply.
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| hyaline cartilage C | most abundant cartilage. covers bone ends in joints. strong, smooth.
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| Fibro cartilage C | more collagen. resists compression and tearing. intervertabral discs in spine.
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| elastic cartilage C | elastic protein fibre. collagen and ground substance. recoils when bent.
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| bone tissue C | hard. has living cells and mineral matrix. osteocytes within the matrix. rigid matrix.
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| blood tissue C | fluid matrix. blood cells move freely. transport.
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| Muscle tissue (M) | contact and shorten.longer than wide.muscle cells=fibre.
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| Skeletal M | several nuclei. striated. voluntary control. long.
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| Cardiac M | heart. involuntary. cylindrical. striated. one nucleus. connected by intercalated discs.
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| smooth M | walls of hollow organs. tapered. one nucleus. non-striated. involuntary.
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| Nervous tissue | brain, spinal cords, nerves. controls body actions.
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| skin | largest and thinest oragn. made of dermis and epidermis.
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| skin functions | protection. flexibility. excretion. temp. regulation. Vit D production. sensation. excretion.
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| epidermis | top layer. stratified squamous. cells produced by mitosis in deep layer.during movement up cells undergo keratinasation, makes them stronger. 5 layers. shed and regenerated.
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| 5 epidermis layers | basale. spinosum. granulosum. lucidum. corneum.
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| dermis | 2 layers. deep connective tissue. fibroblasts, fat cells, macrophages.
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| 2 dermis layers | reticular. papillary.
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| reticular layer | collagen and elastic fibres. strength. produce cleavage lines.
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| papillary layer | projections (papillae) into epidermis. form finger prints. supply epidermis with nutrients. remove waste. regulates body temp.
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| hypodermis | not part on integumentary system. beneath the dermis.
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| Hair shaft | Above epidermis. Contains medulla, cortex, cuticle.
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| Hair | Hair shaft, root, hair bulb, hair follicle.
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| Arrector pili | Muscles. Contract. Make hair stand up.
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| Glands | Sebaceous, holocrine. Connected to hair follicle. Make sebum, lubricates.
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| Merocrine sweat glands | All skin. Lots in palms and soles. H2O and salt. Temp. Reg.
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| Apocrine | Thick secretion. Organic substances. Hair follicles axillae and genitalia. Bacteria = BO
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| Nails | Distal digits. Dead stratum corneum. Nail body, nail root. Cuticle. Nail matrix, lunula
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| Skeletal system | Protection, muscle attachments, mineral storage, blood cells, structure and support
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| Axial skeleton | Head, neck and trunk
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| Appendicular skeleton | Limbs and girdles(pelvis and shoulders)
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| Bone shapes | Long, short, flat, irregular
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| Long bones | Diaphysis (shaft), epiphysis (ends), epiphyseal plate (site bone growth), epiphyseal line (mature plate). Medullary cavity, periosteum, endosteum. Articular cartilage
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| Medullary cavity | Hollow cavity in shaft. Yellow marrow
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| Periosteum | Thick fibrous vascular membrane. Covers bone
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| Endosteum | Connective tissue membrane lining medullary cavity
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| Articular cartilage | Hyaline cartilage on articulating surfaces of bones. Stops friction
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| Compact bone | Hard, dense. Periphery skeletal structure
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| Cancellous bone | Spongy lattice like, bony plates and trubeculae. End of long bones
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| Osteocytes | Bone cell. Mature, surrounded by matrix. In lacunae
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| Osteoblasts | Bone cell. Forms bone. Germ
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| Osteoclasts | Reabsorbing. Breakdown minerals. Change
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| Lacunae | Hollow within bony tissue. Osteoblasts are here.
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| Lamellae | Thin leaf or plate of bone. Matrix
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| Canaliculi | Small tube/channel
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| Haversian canal | Tiny, longitudinal canal. Blood vessels.
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| Haversian system | Osteon. Circular region of bone tissue. Rings of osteocytes and lamellae around blood vessel
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| Hyaline cartilage | Common, glassy. Covers articulating surfaces. Forms costal cartilage
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| Elastic cartilage | Flexible. External ear
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| Fibrocartilage | Intervertebral discs. Points of attachment (tendons to bones)
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| Skull bones | Mandible, maxilla, frontal, parietal, temporal,, occipital, sphenoid
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| Spine bones | Cervical vert(7), thoracic vert(12), lumbar vert(5), sacrum, coccyx. Hyoid.
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| Ribcage | Ribs(12 pairs), sternum.
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| Pectoral girdle | Scapula, clavicle
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| Arms and hands | Humerus, ulna, radius, carpals(8), metacarpals(5), phalanges(14)
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| Pelvic girdle | Ilium, ischium, pubis
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| Leg and feet | Femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals(7), metatarsals(5), phalanges(14), calcaneus
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| Articulation | Point where two bones join. Structure and function
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| Tendon | Tough, fibrous, connective tissue. Connects muscles to bones.
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| Ligament | Tough, fibrous, connective tissue. Connects bone to bone
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| Fibrous joints | Little of no movement. Sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses
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| Sutures | Fibrous. Between skull bones. Fontanelles in new borns, harden over time
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| Syndesmoses | Fibrous. Bones seperated and held with ligaments.
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| Gomphoses | Pegs in sockets. Held by ligaments
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| Cartilagenous joints | Two bones connected by cartilage. Slight movement
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| Synovial joints | Freely moving. Contains synovial fluid, in synovial cavity.
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| joint cavity | filled w/ synovial fluid. enclosed by joint capsule, hold bones together. ligaments, joint stability. synovial membrane produces synovial fluid, lubrication. bursae
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| synarthosis | fibrous, immovable joints.
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| amphiarthroses | cartilaginous, slightly movable joints
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| diarthroses | synovial, freely moving joints
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| types of synovial joints | plane/gliding, saddle, hinge, pivot, ball and socket
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| plane/gliding joints | two flat surfaces glide over each other. carpals/tarsals
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| saddle joints | two saddle shapes. movement in two planes. base of thumb.
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| hinge joints | concave and convex. one plane. elbow/knee
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| pivot joints | rotation on axis. between atlas and axis.
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| ball and socket joints | head and socket. wide range of movement. shoulder/hip
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| muscle groups | skeletal, smooth, cardiac
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| skeletal muscle | movement, posture, expression, respiration. endomysium surrounds muscle fibre in fascicle. fascicle surrounded by perimysium, then epimysium, then fascia is outer layer.
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| muscle contraction | voluntary or involuntary. controlled by somatic motor nervous system.
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| muscle tone | constant tension produced while maintaining posture
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| muscle attachments | attach to articulating bones. one bone moves. origin/insertion.
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| origin | on the bone that doesn't move
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| insertion | bones that move
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| muscle action | act in groups. agonist/prime mover, antagonists, synergists, fixator
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| agonist/prime mover | group performs specific action
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| antagonists | oppose the agonists
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| synergists | contract at same time as prime movers
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| fixator | joint stabiliser. balance when prime movers contract.
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| smooth muscle | line blood vessels, digestive, reproductive tract. no striations. slow to contract. controlled by autonimic nervous system (involuntary)hormones regulate movement. single unit/multi-unit.
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| actin and myosin | myofilaments in muscle fibre. dark and light colour, gives muscle striated appearance.
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| cardiac muscle | only found in heart. striated. auto rythmic
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| Sternocleidomastoid | O=sternum, clavicle. I=temporal bone. Flexes head and neck
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| Trapezius | O=occipital protuberance, thoracic and cervical vertebrae. I=clavicle, scapula. Extends head and neck
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| Rhomboid | O=t1-t4 vert, c6-c7. I=scapula. Moves scapula.
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| Latissimus dorsi | O=vertebrae, ilium crest, lumbodorsal fascia. I=humerus. Extends and adducts arm.
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| Pectoralis minor | O=ribs 2-5. I=scapula. Pulls down shoulder girdle
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| Pectoralis major | O=clavicle, sternum, costal cartilage of tru ribs. I=humerus. Flexes arm, adducts arm anteriorly.
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| Serratus anterior | O=ribs 8-9. I=scapula. Shoulder down, rotates
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| External intercostal | O=ribs. I=rib below O. Elevates ribs.
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| Internal intercostals | O=ribs. I=rib below O
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| Rectus abdominis | O=pelvis. I=sternum. Trunk.
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| External obliques | O=ribs. I=pelvis, linea alba. Trunk.
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| Internal obliques | O=Pelvis, lumbodorsal fascia. I=ribs, linea alba. Pelvis/trunk
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| Transverse abdominis | O=ribs, pelvis, lumbodorsal fascia. I=pubic bone, linea alba, ribs. Trunk.
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| Deltoid | O=clavicle, scapula. I=humerus. Arm
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| Biceps brachii | O=scapula. I=radius. Supinates the forearm and hand
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| Brachialis | O=humerus. I=ulna. Flexes pronated forearm
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| Triceps brachii | O=scapula, humerus. I=ulna. Extends lower arm
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| Gluteus maximus | O=ilium, sacrum, coccyx. I=femur. Thigh
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| Gluteus medial/minimus | O=ilium. I=femur. Thigh
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| Adducters | Brevis, longus, magnus. O=pubic bone. I=femur. Adducts thigh
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| Quadriceps | rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius
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| rectus femoris | O=ilium. I=tibia. extends the leg.
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| Vastus lateralis/medialis/intermedius | O=femur. I=Tibia. extends the leg.
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| Hamstrings | biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus
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| biceps femoris | O=ischium, femur. I=fibula, tibia. leg/thigh
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| semitendinosus/semimembranosus | O=ischium. I=tibia. leg/thigh
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| tibialis anterior | O=tibia. I=tarsal, metatarsal. foot.
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| gastrocnemius | O=femur. I=tarsal. foot.
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| epimysium | surrounds entire muscle organ
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| perimysium | surrounds a fascicle(bundle) of muscle fibres
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| endomysium | surrounds individual muscle fibres
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| muscle shapes | long, convergent, pennate, fusiform, spiral, circular
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